References
- Adimalla N, Li P. 2019. Occurrence, health risks, and geochemical mechanisms of fluoride and nitrate in groundwater of the rock-dominant semi-arid region, Telangana State, India. Hum Ecol Risk Assess. 25(1–2):81–103. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1480353.
- Ahada CP, Suthar S. 2018. Groundwater nitrate contamination and associated human health risk assessment in southern districts of Punjab, India. Environ Sci Pollut. 25(25):25336–25347. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-2581-2.
- Almasi A, Shokri R, Momenzadeh R, Rezaei S, Jamshidi A, Yazdizadeh R. 2016. Distribution of groundwater nitrate in Dehloran, Iran: a case study using GIS. J Adv Environ Health Res. 4(3):155–160. doi:https://doi.org/10.22102/jaehr.2016.42218.
- Amano H, Nakagawa K, Berndtsson R. 2018. Surface water chemistry and nitrate pollution in Shimabara, Nagasaki, Japan. Environ Earth Sci. 77(9):354. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7529-9.
- [ATSDR] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 2013. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Case Studies in Environmental Medicine (CSEM) Nitrate/ Nitrite Toxicity.
- [ATSDR] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Toxicological profile for nitrate and nitriteAtlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service; 2017
- Aschebrook-Kilfoy B, Cross AJ, Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Schatzkin A, Hollenbeck AR, Sinha R, Ward MH. 2011. Pancreatic cancer and exposure to dietary nitrate and nitrite in the NIH-AARP diet and health study. Am J Epidemiol. 174(3):305–315. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwr092.
- Aschebrook-Kilfoy B, Heltshe SL, Nuckols JR, Sabra MM, Shuldiner AR, Mitchell BD, Ward MH, Holford TR, Zhang Y, Ward MH. 2012. Modeled nitrate levels in well water supplies and prevalence of abnormal thyroid conditions among the old order Amish in Pennsylvania. J Environ Health. 11(1):6. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-11-6.
- Bahadoran Z, Carlström M, Ghasemi A, Mirmiran P, Azizi F, Hadaegh F. 2018. Total antioxidant capacity of the diet modulates the association between habitual nitrate intake and cardiovascular events: a longitudinal follow-up in Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study. Nutr Metab. 15:19. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s12986-018-0254-2.
- Bahadoran Z, Mirmiran P, Ghasemi A, Carlström M, Azizi F, Hadaegh F. 2017. Vitamin C intake modify the impact of dietary nitrite on the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a 6-year follow-up in tehran lipid and glucose study. Nitric Oxide. 62:24–31. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.niox.2016.11.005.
- Bahadoran Z, Mirmiran P, Ghasemi A, Kabir A, Azizi F, Hadaegh F. 2015. Is dietary nitrate/nitrite exposure a risk factor for development of thyroid abnormality? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nitric Oxide. 47:65–76. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.niox.2015.04.002.
- Bailey SJ, Vanhatalo A, Winyard PG, Jones AM. 2012. The nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway: its role in human exercise physiology. European J Sport Sci. 12(4):309–320. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2011.635705.
- Bazzara LG, Velez ML, Costamagna ME, Cabanillas AM, Fozzatti L, Lucero AM, Masini-Repiso AM, Masini-Repiso AM. 2007. Nitric oxide/cGMP signaling inhibits TSH-stimulated iodide uptake and expression of thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin mRNA in FRTL-5 thyroid cells. Thyroid. 17(8):717–727. doi:https://doi.org/10.1089/thy.2007.0086.
- Below H, Zöllner H, Völzke H, Kramer A. 2008. Evaluation of nitrate influence on thyroid volume of adults in a previously iodine-deficient area. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 211(1–2):186–191. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2007.02.005.
- Bivolarska AV, Maneva AI, Gatseva PD, Katsarova MN. 2016. Effect of nitrates, thiocyanates and selenium on the iron and iodine status of postpartum women. Folia Med (Plovdiv). 58(3):188–194. doi:https://doi.org/10.1515/folmed-2016-0024.
- Bizhanova A, Kopp P. 2009. The sodium-iodide symporter NIS and pendrin in iodide homeostasis of the thyroid. Endocrinology. 150(3):1084–1090. doi:https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2008-1437.
- Boas M, Feldt-Rasmussen U, Skakkebæk NE, Main KM. 2006. Environmental chemicals and thyroid function. Eur J Endocrinol. 154(5):599–611. doi:https://doi.org/10.1530/eje.1.02128.
- Bondonno CP, Croft KD, Ward N, Considine MJ, Hodgson JM. 2015. Dietary flavonoids and nitrate: effects on nitric oxide and vascular function. Nutr Rev. 73(4):216–235.
- Boukerche S, Aouacheri W, Saka S. 2007. Toxicological effects of nitrate: biological study in human and animal. Ann Biol Clin (Paris). Vol. 65(No. 4):pp. 385–391. doi:https://doi.org/10.1684/abc.2007.0136.
- Bryan NS, Alexander DD, Coughlin JR, Milkowski AL, Boffetta P. 2012. Ingested nitrate and nitrite and stomach cancer risk: an updated review. Food Chem Toxicol. 50(10):3646–3665. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2012.07.062.
- Bursuk E 2012. Introduction to thyroid: anatomy and functions. Thyroid and parathyroid diseases–new insights into some old and some new issues, 1.
- Calleros-Rincón EY, Herrera MTA, Martínez JM, Wong JAC, Morales RP, Sanin LH. 2012. Caracterización de una zona contaminada por nitratos y su impacto en la salud humana. Género, ambiente y contaminación por sustancias químicas. SEMARNART pp.35–54.
- Cantwell M, Elliott C. 2017. Nitrates, nitrites and nitrosamines from processed meat intake and colorectal cancer risk. J Clini Nutr Diet. 3(4):27–30. doi:https://doi.org/10.4172/2472-1921.100062.
- Chaker L, Bianco AC, Jonklaas J, Peeters RP. 2017. Hypothyroidism. Lancet (London, England). 390(10101):1550–1562. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30703-1.
- Chiovato L, Magri F, Carlé A. 2019. Hypothyroidism in context: where we’ve been and where we’re going. Adv Ther. 36(\(Suppl 2)):47–58. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12325-019-01080-8.
- Choi JW. 2004. Enhanced nitric oxide production is closely associated with serum lipid concentrations in adolescents. Clin Chim Acta. 347(1–2):151–156. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cccn.2004.04.024.
- Chung HR. 2014. Iodine and thyroid function. Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 19(1):8. doi:https://doi.org/10.6065/apem.2014.19.1.8.
- Daud MK, Nafees M, Ali S, Rizwan M, Bajwa RA, MB S, Malook I, Chatha SAS, Deeba F, Murad W. 2017. Drinking water quality status and contamination in Pakistan. Biomed Res Int. 2017:1–18. doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/7908183.
- De Escobar GM, Del Rey FE. 2008. Metabolismo de las hormonas tiroideas y el yodo en el embarazo. Razones experimentales para mantener una ingesta de yodo adecuada en la gestación. Endocrinol Nutr. 55:7–17. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S1575-0922(08)76239-9.
- De la Vieja A, Dohán O, Ginter CS, Paroder V, Reed M, Riedel C, Carrasco N 2002. La saga del transportador de yoduro (NIS): de su identificación molecular a su papel clínico en el cáncer. Mensaje bioquímico, 26.
- Del Mar Montesinos M, Nicola JP, Nazar M, Peyret V, Lucero AM, Pellizas CG, Masini-Repiso AM. 2016. Nitric oxide-repressed Forkhead factor FoxE1 expression is involved in the inhibition of TSH-induced thyroid peroxidase levels. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 420:105–115. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2015.11.020.
- Demeneix BA. 2019. Evidence for Prenatal Exposure to Thyroid Disruptors and Adverse Effects on Brain Development. Eur Thyroid J. 6:283–292. doi:https://doi.org/10.1159/000504668.
- Diamanti-Kandarakis E, Bourguignon JP, Giudice LC, Hauser R, Prins GS, Soto AM, Gore AC. 2009. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals: an endocrine society scientific statement. Endocr Rev. 30(4):293–342. doi:https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2009-0002.
- Drozd VM, Branovan I, Shiglik N, Biko J, Reiners C. 2018. Thyroid cancer induction: nitrates as independent risk factors or risk modulators after radiation exposure, with a focus on the chernobyl accident. European Thyroid J. 7(2):67–74. doi:https://doi.org/10.1159/000485971.
- Drozd VM, Saenko VA, Brenner AV, Drozdovitch V, Pashkevich VI, Kudelsky AV, Demidchik YE, Branovan I, Shiglik N, Rogounovitch TI, et al. 2015. Major factors affecting incidence of childhood thyroid cancer in belarus after the chernobyl accident: do nitrates in drinking water play a role? PloS one. 10(9):e0137226. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137226.
- [EPA] Environmental Protection Agency. 2019. [ accessed 30 January 2020]. https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/national-primary-drinking-water-regulations#Inorganic.
- [EPA] Environmental Protection Agency.2015. [ accessed 2015 30 January]. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/201506/documents/ace3references.pdf.
- Elisante E, Muzuka AN. 2017. Occurrence of nitrate in Tanzanian groundwater aquifers: a review. Appl Water Sci. 7(1):71–87. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-015-0269-z.
- El-Wakf AM, Hassan HA, El-said FG, El-Said A. 2009. Hypothyroidism in male rats of different ages exposed to nitrate polluted drinking water. Res J Med Med Sci. 4(2):160–164.
- Eskiocak S, Dundar C, Basoglu T, Altaner S. 2005. The effects of taking chronic nitrate by drinking water on thyroid functions and morphology. Clin Exp Med. 5(2):66–71. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10238-005-0068-1.
- Figueroa-Vega N, Majano P, Larrañaga E, Bravo JM, Rodríguez-Ramos R, González-Amaro R, Marazuela M. 2008. Expresión de la enzima óxido nítrico sintetasa inducible en las enfermedades tiroideas autoinmunitarias. Endocrinología y Nutrición. 55(8):340–345. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S1575-0922(08)72794-3.
- Forrest D, Visser TJ. 2013. Thyroid hormone signaling. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1830(7):3859. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbagen.2013.03.001.
- Gandarilla-Esparza DD, Pérez-Morales R, Fraire-Galindo C, Nieto-González S, Calleros-Rincón EY. 2016. Alteration in biochemical parameters and genotoxic damage in population exposed to nitrates in drinking water. Toxicol Lett. 259:S124. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2016.07.318.
- Gatseva PD, Argirova MD. 2008a. High-nitrate levels in drinking water may be a risk factor for thyroid dysfunction in children and pregnant women living in rural Bulgarian areas. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 211(5–6):555–559. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2007.10.002.
- Gatseva PD, Argirova MD. 2008b. Iodine status and goitre prevalence in nitrate-exposed schoolchildren living in rural Bulgaria. Public health. 122(5):458–461. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2007.09.001.
- Gogoi A, Mazumder P, Tyagi VK, Chaminda GT, An AK, Kumar M. 2018. Occurrence and fate of emerging contaminants in water environment: a review. Groundw Sustain Dev. 6:169–180. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2017.12.009.
- Hmelak Gorenjak A, Cencič A. 2013. Nitrate in veg etables and their impact on human health. a review. Acta Aliment. 42(2):158–172. doi:https://doi.org/10.1556/AAlim.42.2013.2.4.
- Holmes DE, Dang Y, Smith JA. 2019. Nitrogen cycling during wastewater treatment. Adv Appl Microbiol. Vol. 106:113–192. Academic Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aambs.2018.10.003.
- Horton MK, Blount BC, Valentin-Blasini L, Wapner R, Whyatt R, Gennings C, Factor-Litvak P. 2015. Co-occurring exposure to perchlorate, nitrate and thiocyanate alters thyroid function in healthy pregnant women. Environ Res. 143:1–9. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2015.09.013.
- [IARC] International Agency for Research on Cancer. 2010. Ingested nitrate and nitrite, and cyanobacterial peptide toxins. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans, 94.
- Huang GW, Liu H, Li X, Ma M. 2019. Exploring drivers of nitrate contamination of drinking water in an arid region of China. J Environ Inform. 33(2):105–112. doi:https://doi.org/10.3808/jei.201900409.
- Hunault CC, Lambers AC, Mensinga TT, van Isselt JW, Koppeschaar HPF, Meulenbelt J. 2007. Effects of sub-chronic nitrate exposure on the thyroidal function in humans. Toxicol Lett. 175(1–3):64–70. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2007.09.010.
- Karunanidhi D, Aravinthasamy P, Roy PD, Praveenkumar RM, Prasanth K, Selvapraveen S, Srinivasamoorthy K. 2020. Evaluation of non-carcinogenic risks due to fluoride and nitrate contaminations in a groundwater of an urban part (Coimbatore region) of south India. Environ Monit Assess. 192(2):102. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-8059-y.
- Khan FA, Al-Jameil N, Khan MF, Al-Rashid M, Tabassum H. 2015. Thyroid dysfunction: an autoimmune aspect. Int J Clin Exp Med. 8(5):6677–6681.
- Khanfar AR. 2010. Dissolved nitrogen in drinking water resources in Al-Mahareth village of Assir–Saudi Arabia. Saudi J Biol Sci. 17(3):265–268. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2010.04.013.
- Khazan M, Hdayati M. 2014. The role of nitric oxide in health and diseases. Scimetr. 3:1. doi:https://doi.org/10.5812/scimetr.20987.
- Kilfoy BA, Zhang YW, Park Y, Holford TR, Schatzkin A, Hollenbeck A, Ward MH. 2011. Dietary nitrate and nitrite and the risk of thyroid cancer in the NIH-AARP diet and health study. Int J Canc. 129(1):160e172. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.25650.
- Kmecl V, Knap T, Žnidarčič D. 2017. Evaluation of the nitrate and nitrite content of vegetables commonly grown in Slovenia. Ital J Agron. 12:2. doi:https://doi.org/10.4081/ija.2017.801.
- Knobel M. 2016. Etiopathology, clinical features, and treatment of diffuse and multinodular nontoxic goiters. J Endocrinol Invest. 39(4):357–373. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s40618-015-0391-7.
- Kurutas EB. 2015. The importance of antioxidants which play the role in cellular response against oxidative/nitrosative stress: current state. Nutr J. 15(1):71.
- La Perle KM, Kim DC, Hall NC, Bobbey A, Shen DH, Nagy RS, Jhiang SM, Lehman A, Jarjoura D, Jhiang SM. 2013. Modulation of sodium/iodide symporter expression in the salivary gland. Thyroid. 23(8):1029–1036. doi:https://doi.org/10.1089/thy.2012.0571.
- Lawniczak AE, Zbierska J, Nowak B, Achtenberg K, Grześkowiak A, Kanas K. 2016. Impact of agriculture and land use on nitrate contamination in groundwater and running waters in central-west Poland. Environ Monit Assess. 188(3):172. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5167-9.
- Li P, He X, Guo W. 2019. Spatial groundwater quality and potential health risks due to nitrate ingestion through drinking water: a case study in Yan’an City on the Loess Plateau of northwest China. Hum Ecol Risk Asses. 25(1–2):11–31. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1553612.
- Lundberg, J. O., Weitzberg, E., Cole, J. A., & Benjamin, N. 2004. Nitrate, bacteria and human health, bacteria and human health. Nature reviews. Microbiology, 2(7), 593–602. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro929
- Lundberg JO, Carlström M, Weitzberg E. 2018. Metabolic effects of dietary nitrate in health and disease. Cell Metab. 28(1):9–22. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2018.06.007.
- Lundberg JO, Weitzberg E. 2017. Nitric oxide formation from inorganic nitrate. Nitric Oxide. 157–171. Academic Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804273-1.00012-0.
- Lundberg JO, Weitzberg E, Gladwin MT. 2008. The nitrate–nitrite–nitric oxide pathway in physiology and therapeutics. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 7(2):156–167. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd2466.
- Luzardo OP, Hernández LH, Zumbado M, Boada LD. 2014. Impacto de las instalaciones ganaderas sobre la calidad y seguridad del agua subterránea. Revista de Toxicología. 31(1):39–46.
- Manassaram DM, Backer LC, Messing R, Fleming LE, Luke B, Monteilh CP. 2010. Nitrates in drinking water and methemoglobin levels in pregnancy: a longitudinal study. J Environ Health. 9(1):60. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-9-60.
- Mehrnejat N, Yazdanpanah H, Nobari RF, Hashemipour M, Maracy M, Moafi M, Mousavian Z. 2015. Spatial analysis of neonatal congenital hypothyroidism and nitrate as an environmental pollutant in Isfahan Province during 2010–2013. Int J Prev Med. 6. doi:https://doi.org/10.4103/2008-7802.162952.
- Menció A, Mas-Pla J, Otero N, Regàs O, Boy-Roura M, Puig R, Folch A, Domènech C, Zamorano M, Brusi D. 2016. Nitrate pollution of groundwater; all right, but nothing else? Sci Total Environ. 539:241–251. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.151.
- Mendoza A, Hollenberg AN. 2017. New insights into thyroid hormone action. Pharmacol Ther. 173:135145. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2017.02.012.
- Mervish NA, Pajak A, Teitelbaum SL, Pinney SM, Windham GC, Kushi LH, Biro FM, Valentin-Blasini L, Blount BC, Wolff MS. 2016. Breast cancer and environment research project (BCERP). Thyroid antagonists (perchlorate, thiocyanate, and nitrate) and childhood growth in a longitudinal study of US girls. Environ Health Perspec. 124(4):542–549. doi:https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1409309.
- Mical S, Bulotta S, Puppin C, Territo A, Navarra M, Bianchi G, Russo D, Filetti S, Russo D. 2014. Sodium iodide symporter (NIS) in extrathyroidal malignancies: focus on breast and urological cancer. BMC cáncer. 14(1):303. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2407-14-303.
- Mishra RK, Dubey SC. 2015. Fresh water availability and it’s global challenge. Int J Eng Sci Invent Res Dev. 2:351–407.
- Mitchell AM, Manley SW, Morris JC, Powell KA, Bergert ER, Mortimer RH. 2001. Sodium iodide symporter (NIS) gene expression in human placenta. Placenta. 22(2–3):256–258. doi:https://doi.org/10.1053/plac.2000.0609.
- Motohashi S, Kasai K, Banba N, Hattori Y, Shimoda SI. 1996. Nitric oxide inhibits cell growth in cultured human thyrocytes. Life Sci. 59(14):PL227–PL234. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-3205(96)00437-7.
- Nakagawa K, Amano H, Asakura H, Berndtsson R. 2016. Spatial trends of nitrate pollution and groundwater chemistry in Shimabara, Nagasaki, Japan. Environ Earth Sci. 75(3):234. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4971-9.
- Nicola, J. P., Peyret, V., Nazar, M., Romero, J. M., Lucero, A. M., Montesinos, M., Bocco, J. L., Pellizas, C. G., & Masini-Repiso, A. M. 2015. S-Nitrosylation of NF-κB p65 Inhibits TSH-Induced Na(+)/I(-) Symporter Expression. Endocrinology, 156(12), 4741–4754. doi:https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2015–1192
- NOM-. 127–1994. 2000. Diario oficial de la federación DOF. Secretaria de Gobernación, México[ accessed30 January 2020]. http://www.salud.gob.mx/unidades/cdi/nom/m127ssa14.html.
- Nujić M, Habuda-Stanić M. 2017. Nitrates and nitrites, metabolism and toxicity. Food Health Dis Sci Professional J Nutri Dietetics. 6(2):48–89.
- Omar SA, Artime E, Webb AJ. 2012. A comparison of organic and inorganic nitrates/nitrites. Nitric Oxide. 26(4):229–240. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.niox.2012.03.008.
- Ortiga‐Carvalho TM, Chiamolera MI, Pazos‐Moura CC, Wondisford FE. 2016. Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis. Comprehensive Physiology, 6(3):1387–1428. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/cphy.c150027
- Parvizishad M, Dalvand A, Mahvi AH, Goodarzi F. 2017. A review of adverse effects and benefits of nitrate and nitrite in drinking water and food on human health. Health Scope. 6:3. doi:https://doi.org/10.5812/jhealthscope.14164.
- Patel A, Fenton C, Terrell R, Powers PA, Dinauer C, Tuttle RM, Francis GL. 2002. Nitrotyrosine, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) are increased in thyroid tumors from children and adolescents. J Endocrinol Invest. 25(8):675–683. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03345100.
- Pearce EN, Braverman LE. 2009. Environmental pollutants and the thyroid. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 23(6):801–813. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beem.2009.06.003.
- Pennino MJ, Compton JE, Leibowitz SG. 2017. Trends in drinking water nitrate violations across the United States. Environ Sci Technol. 51(22):13450–13460. doi:https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b04269.
- Piccoli J. 2015. Association between nitrite/nitrate and metabolic risk in blacks. Arch Med. 8:1.
- Portulano C, Paroder-Belenitsky M, Carrasco N. 2014. The Na+/I− symporter (NIS): mechanism and medical impact. Endocr Rev. 35(1):106–149. doi:https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2012-1036.
- Poulsen R, Cedergreen N, Hansen M. 2017. Is nitrate an endocrine disruptor? Integr Environ Asses. 13(1):210–212. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.1850.
- Pow EH, Chen Z, Kwong DL, Lam OL, Singh B. 2016. Salivary anionic changes after radiotherapy for nasopharyngeal carcinoma: a 1-year prospective study. PloS one. 11:3. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152817.
- Ravera S, Reyna-Neyra A, Ferrandino G, Amzel LM, Carrasco N. 2017. The sodium/iodide symporter (NIS): molecular physiology and preclinical and clinical applications. Annu Rev Physiol. 79:261–289. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-physiol-022516-034125.
- Rezaei H, Jafari A, Kamarehie B, Fakhri Y, Ghaderpoury A, Karami MA, Salimi M, Shams M, Bidarpoor F, Salimi M. 2019. Health-risk assessment related to the fluoride, nitrate, and nitrite in the drinking water in the Sanandaj, Kurdistan County, Iran. Hum Ecol Risk Assess. 25(5):1242–1250. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1463510.
- Rocha BS, Nunes C, Pereira C, Barbosa RM, Laranjinha J. 2014. A shortcut to wide-ranging biological actions of dietary polyphenols: modulation of the nitrate–nitrite–nitric oxide pathway in the gut. Food Funct. 5(8):1646–1652. doi:https://doi.org/10.1039/C4FO00124A.
- Roila R, Branciari R, Staccini B, Ranucci D, Miraglia D, Altissimi MS, Haouet NM. 2018. Contribution of vegetables and cured meat to dietary nitrate and nitrite intake in Italian population: Safe level for cured meat and controversial role of vegetables. Ital J Food Saf. 7:3. doi:https://doi.org/10.4081/ijfs.2018.7692.
- Sadler TW, Langman J 2012. Langman: Embriología médica/Embriología médica (No. 611.013).Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
- Salgado G, Vásquez B, Del Sol M. 2011. Estereologia de la glandula tiroides humana. Int J Morphol. 29(2):562–567. doi:https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-95022011000200044.
- Serio F, Miglietta PP, Lamastra L, Ficocelli S, Intini F, De Leo F, De Donno A. 2018. Groundwater nitrate contamination and agricultural land use: A grey water footprint perspective in Southern Apulia Region (Italy). Sci Total Environ. 645:1425–1431. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.241.
- Shalev N, Burg A, Gavrieli I, Lazar B. 2015. Nitrate contamination sources in aquifers underlying cultivated fields in an arid region–The Arava Valley, Israel. J Appl Geochem. 63:322–332. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2015.09.017.
- Shukla S, Saxena A. 2018. Global Status of Nitrate Contamination in Groundwater: Its Occurrence, Health Impacts, and Mitigation Measures. In: Hussain C. (eds) Handbook of Environmental Materials Management. Springer, Cham. http://doi-org-443. webvpn.fjmu.edu.cn/10.1007/978-3-319-73645-7_20
- Simsir IY, Cetinkalp S, Kabalak T. 2020. Review of factors contributing to nodular goiter and thyroid carcinoma. Med Prin Pract. 29(1):1–5. doi:https://doi.org/10.1159/000503575.
- Song P, Wu L, Guan W. 2015. Dietary nitrates, nitrites, and nitrosamines intake and the risk of gastric cancer: a meta-analysis. Nutrients. 7(12):9872–9895. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/nu7125505.
- Soundarrajan M, Kopp PA. 2019. Thyroid hormone biosynthesis and physiology. Thyroid Dis Reprod. 1–17. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99079-8_1.
- Spitzweg C, Morris JC. 2002. Sodium iodide symporter (NIS) and thyroid. Hormones-Athens. 1:22–34. doi:https://doi.org/10.14310/horm.2002.1150.
- Stein LY, Klotz MG. 2016. The nitrogen cycle. Current Biol. 26(3):R94–R98. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.021.
- Steinmaus C, Miller MD, Cushing L, Blount BC, Smith AH. 2013. Combined effects of perchlorate, thiocyanate, and iodine on thyroid function in the national health and nutrition examination survey 2007–08. Environ Res. 123:17–24. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2013.01.005.
- Stevens CJ. 2019. Nitrogen in the environment. Science. 363(6427):578–580. doi:https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav8215.
- Tajtáková M, Semanová Z, Tomková Z, Szökeová E, Majoroš J, Rádiková Ž, Langer P, Klimeš I, Langer P. 2006. Increased thyroid volume and frequency of thyroid disorders signs in schoolchildren from nitrate polluted area. Chemospher. 62(4):559–564. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.06.030.
- Takai K. 2019. The nitrogen cycle: a large, fast, and mystifying cycle. Microbes Environ. 34(3):223–225. doi:https://doi.org/10.1264/jsme2.ME3403rh.
- Takeuchi E, Kitano H, Fujioka H, Toda N, Kitajima K, Okamura T. 2001. Nitric oxide synthase activity in human thyroid papillary carcinomas. Acta Histochem Cytochem. 34(3):207–212. doi:https://doi.org/10.1267/ahc.34.207.
- Tonacchera M, Pinchera A, Dimida A, Ferrarini E, Agretti P, Vitti P, Gibbs J, Crump K, Gibbs J. 2004. Relative potencies and additivity of perchlorate, thiocyanate, nitrate, and iodide on the inhibition of radioactive iodide uptake by the human sodium iodide symporter. Thyroid. 14(12):1012–1019. doi:https://doi.org/10.1089/thy.2004.14.1012.
- Van Maanen JM, van Dijk A, Mulder K, de Baets MH, Menheere PC, van der Heide D, Kleinjans JC, Kleinjans JCS. 1994. Consumption of drinking water with high nitrate levels causes hypertrophy of the thyroid. Toxicol Lett. 72(1–3):365–374. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-4274(94)90050-7.
- Varadharaj S, Kelly OJ, Khayat RN, Kumar PS, Ahmed N, Zweier JL. 2017. Role of dietary antioxidants in the preservation of vascular function and the modulation of health and disease. Frontiers Cardiovascular Med. 4:64. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2017.00064.
- Wagh VM, Panaskar DB, Mukate SV, Aamalawar ML, Laxman Sahu U. 2019. Nitrate associated health risks from groundwater of Kadava river basin Nashik, Maharashtra, India. Hum Ecol Risk Assess. 1–19. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1528861.
- Walton G. 1951. Survey of literature relating to infant methemoglobinemia due to nitrate-contaminated water. Am J Public Health Nations Health. 41(8 Pt 1):986–996. doi:https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.41.8_pt_1.986.
- Wang S, Tang C, Song X, Yuan R, Han Z, Pan Y. 2016. Factors contributing to nitrate contamination in a groundwater recharge area of the North China Plain. Hydrol Process. 30(13):2271–2285. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10778.
- Ward L (Ed.). 2012. Thyroid and Parathyroid Diseases: New Insights into Some Old and Some New Issues. BoD–Books on Demand.
- Ward MH, Jones RR, Brender JD, De Kok TM, Weyer PJ, Nolan B, Van Breda SG, van Breda S. 2018. Drinking water nitrate and human health: an updated review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 15(7):1557. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071557.
- [WHO] World Health Organization. Guidelines for drinking-water quality: fourth edition incorporating the first addendum. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2017. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
- Ward MH, Kilfoy BA, Weyer PJ, Anderson KE, Folsom AR, Cerhan JR. 2010. Nitrate intake and the risk of thyroid cancer and thyroid disease. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass). 21(3):389. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181d6201d.
- Weitzberg E, Hezel M, Lundberg JO. 2010. Nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway implications for anesthesiology and intensive care. Anesthesiol. 113(6):1460–1475. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181fcf3cc.
- Wongsanit J, Teartisup P, Kerdsueb P, Tharnpoophasiam P, Worakhunpiset S. 2015. Contamination of nitrate in groundwater and its potential human health: a case study of lower Mae Klong river basin, Thailand. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 22(15):11504–11512. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4347-4.
- Zaki A, Ait Chaoui A, Talibi A, Derouiche AF, Aboussaouira T, Zarrouck K, Chait A, Himmi T. 2004. Impact of nitrate intake in drinking water on the thyroid gland activity in male rat. Toxicol Lett. 147(1):27e33. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2003.10.010.