50
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Dietary supplements: clinical cholesterol-lowering efficacy and potential mechanisms of action

, , , , , , , , , , , & show all
Received 15 Nov 2023, Accepted 06 Apr 2024, Published online: 24 Apr 2024

References

  • Agerholm-Larsen L, Bell ML, Grunwald GK, Astrup A. 2000. The effect of a probiotic milk product on plasma cholesterol: a meta-analysis of short-term intervention studies. Eur J Clin Nutr. 54(11):856–860. doi: 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601104.
  • Agerholm-Larsen L, Raben A, Haulrik N, Hansen AS, Manders M, Astrup A. 2000. Effect of 8 week intake of probiotic milk products on risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. Eur J Clin Nutr. 54(4):288–297. doi: 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600937.
  • Akan S, Ocak OO. 2019. Evaluation of storage time and grape seed extract addition on biogenic amines content of tarhana: a cereal-based fermented food. Lwt-Food Science and Technology. 111:861–868. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2019.05.109.
  • Alphonse PAS, Ramprasath V, Jones PJH. 2017. Effect of dietary cholesterol and plant sterol consumption on plasma lipid responsiveness and cholesterol trafficking in healthy individuals. Br J Nutr. 117(1):56–66. doi: 10.1017/s0007114516004530.
  • Amiot MJ, Knol D, Cardinault N, Nowicki M, Bott R, Antona C, Borel P, Bernard JP, Duchateau G, Lairon D. 2013. Comparable reduction in cholesterol absorption after two different ways of phytosterol administration in humans. Eur J Nutr. 52(3):1215–1222. doi: 10.1007/s00394-012-0432-3.
  • Anderson JW, Johnstone BM, Cook-Newell ME. 1995. Metaanalysis of the effects of soy protein-intake on serum-lipids. N Engl J Med. 333(5):276–282. doi: 10.1056/nejm199508033330502.
  • Anjom-Shoae J, Milajerdi A, Larijani B, Esmaillzadeh A. 2020. Effects of grape seed extract on dyslipidaemia: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br J Nutr. 124(2):121–134. doi: 10.1017/s0007114520000902.
  • Aravind SM, Wichienchot S, Tsao R, Ramakrishnan S, Chakkaravarthi S. 2021. Role of dietary polyphenols on gut microbiota, their metabolites and health benefits. Food Res Int. 142:110189. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110189.
  • Araya-Quintanilla F, Gutiérrez-Espinoza H, Moyano-Gálvez V, Muñoz-Yánez MJ, Pavez L, García K. 2019. Effectiveness of black tea versus placebo in subjects with hypercholesterolemia: a PRISMA systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 13(3):2250–2258. doi: 10.1016/j.dsx.2019.05.019.
  • Asbaghi O, Nazarian B, Reiner Z, Amirani E, Kolahdooz F, Chamani M, Asemi Z. 2020. The effects of grape seed extract on glycemic control, serum lipoproteins, inflammation, and body weight: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Phytother Res. 34(2):239–253. doi: 10.1002/ptr.6518.
  • Asbaghi O, Sadeghian M, Nasiri M, Khodadost M, Shokri A, Panahande B, Pirouzi A, Sadeghi O. 2020. The effects of green coffee extract supplementation on glycemic indices and lipid profile in adults: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of clinical trials. Nutr J. 19(1):71. doi: 10.1186/s12937-020-00587-z.
  • Banach M, Catapano AL, Cicero AFG, Escobar C, Foger B, Katsiki N, Latkovskis G, Rakowski M, Reiner Z, Sahebkar A, et al. 2022. Red yeast rice for dyslipidaemias and cardiovascular risk reduction: a position paper of the International Lipid Expert Panel. Pharmacol Res 183. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2022.106370.
  • Banach M, Norata GD. 2023. Rhabdomyolysis or severe acute hepatitis associated with the use of red yeast rice extracts: an update from the adverse event reporting systems. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 25(11):879–888. doi: 10.1007/s11883-023-01157-4.
  • Beltrán D, Frutos-Lisón MD, Espín JC, García-Villalba R. 2019. Re-examining the role of the gut microbiota in the conversion of the lipid-lowering statin monacolin K (lovastatin) into its active β-hydroxy acid metabolite. Food Funct. 10(4):1787–1791. doi: 10.1039/c8fo02594k.
  • Blais JE, Huang X, Zhao JV. 2023. Overall and sex-specific effect of berberine for the treatment of dyslipidemia in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Drugs. 83(5):403–427. doi: 10.1007/s40265-023-01841-4.
  • Bohn T. 2014. Dietary factors affecting polyphenol bioavailability. Nutr Rev. 72(7):429–452. doi: 10.1111/nure.12114.
  • Brouns F, Theuwissen E, Adam A, Bell M, Berger A, Mensink RP. 2012. Cholesterol-lowering properties of different pectin types in mildly hyper-cholesterolemic men and women. Eur J Clin Nutr. 66(5):591–599. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2011.208.
  • Brown AW, Hang J, Dussault PH, Carr TP. 2010. Phytosterol ester constituents affect micellar cholesterol solubility in model bile. Lipids. 45(9):855–862. doi: 10.1007/s11745-010-3456-6.
  • Cao RY, Zheng Y, Zhang Y, Jiang L, Li Q, Sun W, Gu W, Cao W, Zhou L, Zheng H, et al. 2021. Berberine on the prevention and management of cardiometabolic disease: clinical applications and mechanisms of action. Am J Chin Med. 49(7):1645–1666. doi: 10.1142/s0192415x21500762.
  • Chiu HF, Fang CY, Shen YC, Venkatakrishnan K, Wang CK. 2021. Efficacy of probiotic milk formula on blood lipid and intestinal function in mild hypercholesterolemic volunteers: a placebo-control, randomized clinical trial. Probiotics Antimicrob Proteins. 13(3):624–632. doi: 10.1007/s12602-020-09728-6.
  • Cicero AFG, Fogacci F, Stoian AP, Toth PP. 2023. Red yeast rice for the improvement of lipid profiles in mild-to-moderate hypercholesterolemia: a narrative review. Nutrients. 15(10):2288. doi: 10.3390/nu15102288.
  • Daneshzad E, Shab-Bidar S, Mohammadpour Z, Djafarian K. 2019. Effect of anthocyanin supplementation on cardio-metabolic biomarkers: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clin Nutr. 38(3):1153–1165. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2018.06.979.
  • Demonty I, Ras RT, van der Knaap HCM, Duchateau GSMJE, Meijer L, Zock PL, Geleijnse JM, Trautwein EA. 2009. Continuous dose-response relationship of the LDL-cholesterol-lowering effect of phytosterol intake. J Nutr. 139(2):271–284. doi: 10.3945/jn.108.095125.
  • Ding F, Ma B, Nazary-Vannani A, Kord-Varkaneh H, Fatahi S, Papageorgiou M, Rahmani J, Poursoleiman F, Júnior Borges do Nascimento I, Li H, et al. 2020. The effects of green coffee bean extract supplementation on lipid profile in humans: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 30(1):1–10. doi: 10.1016/j.numecd.2019.10.002.
  • Dong B, Li H, Singh AB, Cao A, Liu J. 2015. Inhibition of PCSK9 transcription by berberine involves down-regulation of hepatic HNF1 alpha protein expression through the ubiquitin-proteasome degradation pathway. J Biol Chem. 290(7):4047–4058. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M114.597229.
  • Dong B, Wu M, Li H, Kraemer FB, Adeli K, Seidah NG, Park SW, Liu J. 2010. Strong induction of PCSK9 gene expression through HNF1 alpha and SREBP2: mechanism for the resistance to LDL-cholesterol lowering effect of statins in dyslipidemic hamsters. J Lipid Res. 51(6):1486–1495. doi: 10.1194/jlr.M003566.
  • Dong ZX, Lee BH. 2018. Bile salt hydrolases: structure and function, substrate preference, and inhibitor development. Protein Sci. 27(10):1742–1754. doi: 10.1002/pro.3484.
  • Duan J, Li YX, Gao HH, Yang DH, He X, Fang YL, Zhou GB. 2020. Phenolic compound ellagic acid inhibits mitochondrial respiration and tumor growth in lung cancer. Food Funct. 11(7):6332–6339. doi: 10.1039/d0fo01177k.
  • Fan T-Y, Yang Y-X, Zeng Q-X, Wang X-L, Wei W, Guo X-X, Zhao L-P, Song D-Q, Wang Y-X, Wang L, et al. 2021. Structure-activity relationship and biological evaluation of berberine derivatives as PCSK9 down-regulating agents. Bioorg Chem. 113:104994. doi: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2021.
  • Farhat D, Rezaei F, Ristovski M, Yang Y, Stancescu A, Dzimkova L, Samnani S, Couture J-F, Lee J-Y. 2022. Structural analysis of cholesterol binding and sterol selectivity by ABCG5/G8. J Mol Biol. 434(20):167795. doi: 10.1016/j.jmb.2022.167795.
  • Fedoseienko A, Wijers M, Wolters JC, Dekker D, Smit M, Huijkman N, Kloosterhuis N, Klug H, Schepers A, van Dijk KW, et al. 2018. The COMMD family regulates plasma LDL levels and attenuates atherosclerosis through stabilizing the CCC complex in endosomal LDLR trafficking. Circ Res. 122(12):1648–1660. doi: 10.1161/circresaha.117.312004.
  • Fogacci F, Borghi C, Cicero AFG. 2021. Diets, foods and food components’ effect on dyslipidemia. Nutrients. 13(3):741. doi: 10.3390/nu13030741.
  • Foley MH, O'Flaherty S, Allen G, Rivera AJ, Stewart AK, Barrangou R, Theriot CM. 2021. Lactobacillus bile salt hydrolase substrate specificity governs bacterial fitness and host colonization. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 118(6):e2017709118. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2017709118.
  • Food labeling: health claims; soy protein and coronary heart disease. Food and Drug Administration, HHS. Final rule. 1999. Fed Regist. 64(206):57700–57733.
  • Fuentes MC, Lajo T, Carrión JM, Cuñé J. 2013. Cholesterol-lowering efficacy of Lactobacillus plantarum CECT 7527, 7528 and 7529 in hypercholesterolaemic adults. Br J Nutr. 109(10):1866–1872. doi: 10.1017/s000711451200373x.
  • Fujii T, Matsutomo T, Kodera Y. 2018. Changes of S-allylmercaptocysteine and gamma-glutamyl-S-allylmercaptocysteine contents and their putative production mechanisms in garlic extract during the aging process. J Agric Food Chem. 66(40):10506–10512. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b02541.
  • Fukui K, Tachibana N, Wanezaki S, Tsuzaki S, Takamatsu K, Yamamoto T, Hashimoto Y, Shimoda T. 2002. Isoflavone-free soy protein prepared by column chromatography reduces plasma cholesterol in rats. J Agric Food Chem. 50(20):5717–5721. doi: 10.1021/jf025642f.
  • Fullerton MD, Ford RJ, McGregor CP, LeBlond ND, Snider SA, Stypa SA, Day EA, Lhoták Š, Schertzer JD, Austin RC, et al. 2015. Salicylate improves macrophage cholesterol homeostasis via activation of Ampk. J Lipid Res. 56(5):1025–1033. doi: 10.1194/jlr.M058875.
  • Gadidala SK, Johny E, Thomas C, Nadella M, Undela K, Adela R. 2023. Effect of garlic extract on markers of lipid metabolism and inflammation in coronary artery disease (CAD) patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Phytother Res. 37(6):2242–2254. doi: 10.1002/ptr.7729.
  • Galmés S, Reynés B, Palou M, Palou-March A, Palou A. 2021. Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of the main olive tree phenols and polyphenols: a literature review. J Agric Food Chem. 69(18):5281–5296. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c00737.
  • Gao YS, Xun RL, Xia JY, Xia H, Sun GJ. 2023. Effects of phytosterol supplementation on lipid profiles in patients with hypercholesterolemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Food Funct. 14(7):2969–2997. doi: 10.1039/d2fo03663k.
  • García-Díez E, López-Oliva ME, Pérez-Jiménez J, Martín MA, Ramos S. 2022. Metabolic regulation of (-)-epicatechin and the colonic metabolite 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid on the glucose uptake, lipid accumulation and insulin signalling in cardiac H9c2 cells. Food Funct. 13(10):5602–5615. doi: 10.1039/d2fo00182a.
  • George ES, Marshall S, Mayr HL, Trakman GL, Tatucu-Babet OA, Lassemillante A-CM, Bramley A, Reddy AJ, Forsyth A, Tierney AC, et al. 2019. The effect of high-polyphenol extra virgin olive oil on cardiovascular risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 59(17):2772–2795. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2018.1470491.
  • González-Sarrías A, García-Villalba R, Romo-Vaquero M, Alasalvar C, Örem A, Zafrilla P, Tomás-Barberán FA, Selma MV, Espín JC. 2017. Clustering according to urolithin metabotype explains the interindividual variability in the improvement of cardiovascular risk biomarkers in overweight-obese individuals consuming pomegranate: a randomized clinical trial. Mol Nutr Food Res. 61(5):1600830. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201600830.
  • Gunness P, Gidley MJ. 2010. Mechanisms underlying the cholesterol-lowering properties of soluble dietary fibre polysaccharides. Food Funct. 1(2):149–155. doi: 10.1039/c0fo00080a.
  • Guo C-F, Yuan Y-H, Yue T-L, Li J-Y. 2018. Hamsters are a better model system than rats for evaluating the hypocholesterolemic efficacy of potential probiotic strains. Mol Nutr Food Res. 62(16):e1800170. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201800170.
  • Guo C-F, Zhang S, Yuan Y-H, Li J-Y, Yue T-L. 2018. Bile salt hydrolase and S-layer protein are the key factors affecting the hypocholesterolemic activity of Lactobacillus casei-fermented milk in hamsters. Mol Nutr Food Res. 62(24):e1800728. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201800728.
  • Gupta N, Porter TD. 2001. Garlic and garlic-derived compounds inhibit human squalene monooxygenase. J Nutr. 131(6):1662–1667. doi: 10.1093/jn/131.6.1662.
  • Gutiérrez TJ, Tovar J. 2021. Update of the concept of type 5 resistant starch (RS5): self-assembled starch V-type complexes. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 109:711–724. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.01.078.
  • Gylling H, Plat J, Turley S, Ginsberg HN, Ellegård L, Jessup W, Jones PJ, Lütjohann D, Maerz W, Masana L, et al. 2014. Plant sterols and plant stanols in the management of dyslipidaemia and prevention of cardiovascular disease. Atherosclerosis. 232(2):346–360. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2013.11.043.
  • Habtemariam S. 2020. Berberine pharmacology and the gut microbiota: a hidden therapeutic link. Pharmacol Res. 155:104722. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.104722.
  • Haghikia A, Zimmermann F, Schumann P, Jasina A, Roessler J, Schmidt D, Heinze P, Kaisler J, Nageswaran V, Aigner A, et al. 2022. Propionate attenuates atherosclerosis by immune-dependent regulation of intestinal cholesterol metabolism. Eur Heart J. 43(6):518–533. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehab644.
  • Hakkak R, Spray B, Børsheim E, Korourian S. 2022. Diet containing soy protein concentrate with low and high isoflavones for 9 weeks protects against non-alcoholic fatty liver steatosis using obese zucker rats. Front Nutr. 9:913571. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.913571.
  • Hakkola S, Nylund L, Rosa-Sibakov N, Yang B, Nordlund E, Pahikkala T, Kalliomäki M, Aura A-M, Linderborg KM. 2021. Effect of oat beta-glucan of different molecular weights on fecal bile acids, urine metabolites and pressure in the digestive tract - a human cross over trial. Food Chem. 342:128219. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128219.
  • Halajzadeh J, Milajerdi A, Reiner Z, Amirani E, Kolahdooz F, Barekat M, Mirzaei H, Mirhashemi SM, Asemi Z. 2020. Effects of resistant starch on glycemic control, serum lipoproteins and systemic inflammation in patients with metabolic syndrome and related disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 60(18):3172–3184. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1680950.
  • Hamauzu Y, Ikeda E. 2022. In vitro and in vivo evaluation of the bile acid-binding properties of dried persimmon and its non-extractable proanthocyanidin fraction. Food Chem. 373(Pt B):131617. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.
  • He W-S, Zhu H, Chen Z-Y. 2018a. Plant sterols: chemical and enzymatic structural modifications and effects on their cholesterol-lowering activity. J Agric Food Chem. 66(12):3047–3062. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b00059.
  • Hernáez Á, Castañer O, Elosua R, Pintó X, Estruch R, Salas-Salvadó J, Corella D, Arós F, Serra-Majem L, Fiol M, et al. 2017. Mediterranean diet improves high-density lipoprotein function in high-cardiovascular-risk individuals a randomized controlled trial. Circulation. 135(7):633–643. doi: 10.1161/circulationaha.116.023712.
  • Hernáez Á, Sanllorente A, Castañer O, Martínez-González MÁ, Ros E, Pintó X, Estruch R, Salas-Salvadó J, Corella D, Alonso-Gómez ÁM, et al. 2019. Increased consumption of virgin olive oil, nuts, legumes, whole grains, and fish promotes HDL functions in humans. Mol Nutr Food Res. 63(6):e1800847. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201800847.
  • Hillman LC, Peters SG, Fisher CA, Pomare EW. 1985. The effects of the fiber components pectin. Am J Clin Nutr. 42(2):207–213. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/42.2.207.
  • Ho HVT, Jovanovski E, Zurbau A, Mejia SB, Sievenpiper JL, Au-Yeung F, Jenkins AL, Duvnjak L, Leiter L, Vuksan V. 2017. A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of the effect of konjac glucomannan, a viscous soluble fiber, on LDL cholesterol and the new lipid targets non-HDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein B. Am J Clin Nutr. 105(5):1239–1247. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.116.142158.
  • Hooper L, Kay C, Abdelhamid A, Kroon PA, Cohn JS, Rimm EB, Cassidy A. 2012. Effects of chocolate, cocoa, and flavan-3-ols on cardiovascular health: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Am J Clin Nutr. 95(3):740–751. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.111.023457.
  • Horáčková Š, Plocková M, Demnerová K. 2018. Importance of microbial defence systems to bile salts and mechanisms of serum cholesterol reduction. Biotechnol Adv. 36(3):682–690. doi: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2017.12.005.
  • Hu HJ, Zhang SS, Liu FX, Zhang PP, Muhammad Z, Pan SY. 2019. Role of the gut microbiota and their metabolites in modulating the cholesterol-lowering effects of citrus pectin oligosaccharides in C57BL/6 Mice. J Agric Food Chem. 67(43):11922–11930. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b03731.
  • Hu J, Wang J, Gan QX, Ran Q, Lou GH, Xiong HJ, Peng CY, Sun JL, Yao RC, Huang QW. 2020. Impact of red yeast rice on metabolic diseases: a review of possible mechanisms of action. J Agric Food Chem. 68(39):10441–10455. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c01893.
  • Huang JB, Feng SM, Liu AN, Dai ZQ, Wang H, Reuhl K, Lu WY, Yang CS. 2018. Green tea polyphenol EGCG alleviates metabolic abnormality and fatty liver by decreasing bile acid and lipid absorption in mice. Mol Nutr Food Res. 62(4): doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201700696.
  • Hunter PM, Hegele RA. 2017. Functional foods and dietary supplements for the management of dyslipidaemia. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 13(5):278–288. doi: 10.1038/nrendo.2016.210.
  • Jenkins DJA, Mirrahimi A, Srichaikul K, Berryman CE, Wang L, Carleton A, Abdulnour S, Sievenpiper JL, Kendall CWC, Kris-Etherton PM. 2010. Soy protein reduces serum cholesterol by both intrinsic and food displacement mechanisms. J Nutr. 140(12):2302S–2311S. doi: 10.3945/jn.110.124958.
  • Jia W, Li YT, Cheung KCP, Zheng XJ. 2023. Bile acid signaling in the regulation of whole body metabolic and immunological homeostasis. Sci China Life Sci. doi: 10.1007/s11427-023-2353-0.
  • Jin T, Zhang Y, Botchway BOA, Huang M, Lu QC, Liu XH. 2023. Quercetin activates the Sestrin2/AMPK/SIRT1 axis to improve amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Biomed Pharmacother. 161:114515. doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114515.
  • Jones ML, Martoni CJ, Prakash S. 2012. Cholesterol lowering and inhibition of sterol absorption by Lactobacillus reuteri NCIMB 30242: a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Clin Nutr. 66(11):1234–1241. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2012.126.
  • Jones PJH, Shamloo M, MacKay DS, Rideout TC, Myrie SB, Plat J, Roullet J-B, Baer DJ, Calkins KL, Davis HR, et al. 2018. Progress and perspectives in plant sterol and plant stanol research. Nutr Rev. 76(10):725–746. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuy032.
  • Jovanovski E, Yashpal S, Komishon A, Zurbau A, Mejia SB, Ho HVT, Li DD, Sievenpiper J, Duvnjak L, Vuksan V. 2018. Effect of psyllium (Plantago ovata) fiber on LDL cholesterol and alternative lipid targets, non-HDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein B: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr. 108(5):922–932. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/nqy115.
  • Ju J, Li J, Lin Q, Xu H. 2018. Efficacy and safety of berberine for dyslipidaemias: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Phytomedicine. 50:25–34. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2018.09.212.
  • Kapoor MP, Ishihara N, Okubo T. 2016. Soluble dietary fibre partially hydrolysed guar gum markedly impacts on postprandial hyperglycaemia, hyperlipidaemia and incretins metabolic hormones over time in healthy and glucose intolerant subjects. J Funct Foods. 24:207–220. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2016.04.008.
  • Kastl A, Zong W, Gershuni VM, Friedman ES, Tanes C, Boateng A, Mitchell WJ, O'Connor K, Bittinger K, Terry NA, et al. 2022. Dietary fiber-based regulation of bile salt hydrolase activity in the gut microbiota and its relevance to human disease. Gut Microbes. 14(1):2083417. doi: 10.1080/19490976.2022.
  • Khadka A, Verguet S. 2021. The economic value of changing mortality risk in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic breakdown by cause of death. BMC Med. 19(1):156. doi: 10.1186/s12916-021-02029-x.
  • Kong WJ, Wei J, Abidi P, Lin MH, Inaba S, Li C, Wang YL, Wang ZZ, Si SY, Pan HN, et al. 2004. Berberine is a novel cholesterol-lowering drug working through a unique mechanism distinct from statins. Nat Med. 10(12):1344–1351. doi: 10.1038/nm1135.
  • Lammi C, Zanoni C, Arnoldi A, Vistoli G. 2015. Two peptides from soy beta-conglycinin induce a hypocholesterolemic effect in HepG2 cells by a statin-like mechanism: comparative in vitro and in silico modeling studies. J Agric Food Chem. 63(36):7945–7951. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b03497.
  • Lawson LD, Gardner CD. 2005. Composition, stability, and bioavailability of garlic products used in a clinical trial. J Agric Food Chem. 53(16):6254–6261. doi: 10.1021/jf050536+.
  • Lawson LD, Hunsaker SM. 2018. Allicin bioavailability and bioequivalence from garlic supplements and garlic foods. Nutrients. 10(7):812. doi: 10.3390/nu10070812.
  • Lee SJ, Kim SE, Go TH, Kang DR, Jeon HS, Kim YI, Cho DH, Park YJ, Lee JH, Lee JW, et al. 2023. Remnant cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and incident cardiovascular disease among Koreans: a national population-based study. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 30(11):1142–1150. doi: 10.1093/eurjpc/zwad036.
  • Li H, Dong B, Park SW, Lee H-S, Chen W, Liu J. 2009. Hepatocyte nuclear factor 1 alpha plays a critical role in PCSK9 gene transcription and regulation by the natural hypocholesterolemic compound berberine. J Biol Chem. 284(42):28885–28895. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M109.052407.
  • Li S, Guo W, Lau W, Zhang H, Zhan Z, Wang X, Wang H. 2023. The association of garlic intake and cardiovascular risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 63(26):8013–8031. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2053657.
  • Liang DF, Wu F, Zhou DX, Tan BZ, Chen TT. 2023. Commercial probiotic products in public health: current status and potential limitations. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. :1–22. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2169858.
  • Liang X, Zhang Z, Zhou XH, Lu YY, Li R, Yu Z, Tong LJ, Gong PM, Yi HX, Liu TJ, et al. 2020. Probiotics improved hyperlipidemia in mice induced by a high cholesterol diet via downregulating FXR. Food Funct. 11(11):9903–9911. doi: 10.1039/d0fo02255a.
  • Lin BQ, Zhao FY, Liu Y, Wu X, Feng J, Jin XR, Yan W, Guo X, Shi S, Li ZY, et al. 2022. Randomized clinical trial: probiotics alleviated oral-gut microbiota dysbiosis and thyroid hormone withdrawal-related complications in thyroid cancer patients before radioiodine therapy following thyroidectomy. Front Endocrinol. 13:834674. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2022.
  • Lin X, Racette SB, Lefevre M, Spearie CA, Most M, Ma L, Ostlund RE.Jr. 2010. The effects of phytosterols present in natural food matrices on cholesterol metabolism and LDL-cholesterol: a controlled feeding trial. Eur J Clin Nutr. 64(12):1481–1487. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2010.180.
  • Liu F, Prabhakar M, Ju J, Long H, Zhou HW. 2017. Effect of inulin-type fructans on blood lipid profile and glucose level: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur J Clin Nutr. 71(1):9–20. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2016.156.
  • Liu LJ, Yeh YY. 2002. S-alk(en)yl cysteines of garlic inhibit cholesterol synthesis by deactivating HMG-CoA reductase in cultured rat hepatocytes. J Nutr. 132(6):1129–1134. doi: 10.1093/jn/132.6.1129.
  • Liu YW, Yang J, Lei L, Wang LJ, Wang XB, Ma KY, Yang XQ, Chen ZY. 2019. Isoflavones enhance the plasma cholesterol-lowering activity of 7S protein in hypercholesterolemic hamsters. Food Funct. 10(11):7378–7386. doi: 10.1039/c9fo01432b.
  • Luo J, Yang H, Song B-L. 2020. Mechanisms and regulation of cholesterol homeostasis. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 21(4):225–245. doi: 10.1038/s41580-019-0190-7.
  • Macchi C, Greco MF, Ferri N, Magni P, Arnoldi A, Corsini A, Sirtori CR, Ruscica M, Lammi C. 2022. Impact of soy beta-conglycinin peptides on PCSK9 protein expression in HepG2 cells. Nutrients. 14(1):193. doi: 10.3390/nu14010193.
  • McCarthy M. 1998. FDA bans red yeast rice product. Lancet. 351(9116):1637–1637. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(05)77698-4.
  • Mejia SB, Messina M, Li SS, Viguiliouk E, Chiavaroli L, Khan TA, Srichaikul K, Mirrahimi A, Sievenpiper JL, Kris-Etherton P, et al. 2019. A meta-analysis of 46 studies identified by the FDA demonstrates that soy protein decreases circulating LDL and total cholesterol concentrations in adults. J Nutr. 149(6):968–981. doi: 10.1093/jn/nxz020.
  • Melguizo-Rodríguez L, García-Recio E, Ruiz C, De Luna-Bertos E, Illescas-Montes R, Costela-Ruiz VJ. 2022. Biological properties and therapeutic applications of garlic and its components. Food Funct. 13(5):2415–2426. doi: 10.1039/d1fo03180e.
  • Miao L, Cheong MS, Zhou C, Farag M, San Cheang W, Xiao J. 2023. Apigenin alleviates diabetic endothelial dysfunction through activating AMPK/PI3K/Akt/eNOS and Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways. Food Frontiers. 4(1):420–431. doi: 10.1002/fft2.192.
  • Michos ED, McEvoy JW, Blumenthal RS. 2019. Lipid management for the prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 381(16):1557–1567. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra1806939.
  • Mokhtar FBA, Plat J, Mensink RP. 2022. Genetic variation and intestinal cholesterol absorption in humans: a systematic review and a gene network analysis. Prog Lipid Res. 86:101164. doi: 10.1016/j.plipres.2022.101164.
  • Neag MA, Mocan A, Echeverría J, Pop RM, Bocsan CI, Crişan G, Buzoianu AD. 2018. Berberine: botanical occurrence, traditional uses, extraction methods, and relevance in cardiovascular, metabolic, hepatic, and renal disorders. Front Pharmacol. 9:557. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00557.
  • Osadnik T, Goławski M, Lewandowski P, Morze J, Osadnik K, Pawlas N, Lejawa M, Jakubiak GK, Mazur A, Schwingschackl L, et al. 2022. A network meta-analysis on the comparative effect of nutraceuticals on lipid profile in adults. Pharmacol Res. 183:106402. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2022.
  • Pang J, Xu H, Wang X, Chen X, Li Q, Liu Q, You Y, Zhang H, Xu Z, Zhao Y, et al. 2021. Resveratrol enhances trans-intestinal cholesterol excretion through selective activation of intestinal liver X receptor alpha. Biochem Pharmacol. 186:114481. doi: 10.1016/j.bcp.2021.
  • Potter SM, Baum JA, Teng HY, Stillman RJ, Shay NF, Erdman JW. 1998. Soy protein and isoflavones: their effects on blood lipids and bone density in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr. 68(6 Suppl):1375S–1379S. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/68.6.1375S.
  • Pushpass RAG, Alzoufairi S, Jackson KG, Lovegrove JA. 2022. Circulating bile acids as a link between the gut microbiota and cardiovascular health: impact of prebiotics, probiotics and polyphenol-rich foods. Nutr Res Rev. 35(2):161–180. doi: 10.1017/s0954422421000081.
  • Qin Y, Niu K, Zeng Y, Liu P, Yi L, Zhang T, Zhang QY, Zhu JD, Mi MT. 2013. Isoflavones for hypercholesterolaemia in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013(6) doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009518.pub2.
  • Rahmani P, Melekoglu E, Tavakoli S, Alamdari NM, Rohani P, Sohouli MH. 2023. Impact of red yeast rice supplementation on lipid profile: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized-controlled trials. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 16(1):73–81. doi: 10.1080/17512433.2023.2138342.
  • Ras RT, Geleijnse JM, Trautwein EA. 2014. LDL-cholesterol-lowering effect of plant sterols and stanols across different dose ranges: a meta-analysis of randomised ­controlled studies. Br J Nutr. 112(2):214–219. doi: 10.1017/s0007114514000750.
  • Reinhart KM, Talati R, White CM, Coleman CI. 2009. The impact of garlic on lipid parameters: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr Res Rev. 22(1):39–48. doi: 10.1017/s0954422409350003.
  • Reynolds AN, Akerman A, Kumar S, Pham HTD, Coffey S, Mann J. 2022. Dietary fibre in hypertension and cardiovascular disease management: systematic review and meta-analyses. BMC Med. 20(1):139. doi: 10.1186/s12916-022-02328-x.
  • Ribas SA, Cunha DB, Sichieri R, da Silva LCS. 2015. Effects of psyllium on LDL-cholesterol concentrations in Brazilian children and adolescents: a randomised, placebo-controlled, parallel clinical trial. Br J Nutr. 113(1):134–141. doi: 10.1017/s0007114514003419.
  • Ried K, Toben C, Fakler P. 2013. Effect of garlic on serum lipids: an updated meta-analysis. Nutr Rev. 71(5):282–299. doi: 10.1111/nure.12012.
  • Ru X, Zhang C-C, Yuan Y-H, Yue T-L, Guo C-F. 2019. Bile salt hydrolase activity is present in nonintestinal lactic acid bacteria at an intermediate level. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 103(2):893–902. doi: 10.1007/s00253-018-9492-5.
  • Schwingshackl L, Missbach B, Hoffmann G. 2016. An umbrella review of garlic intake and risk of cardiovascular disease. Phytomedicine. 23(11):1127–1133. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2015.10.015.
  • Seidah NG, Prat A. 2022. The multifaceted biology of PCSK9. Endocr Rev. 43(3):558–582. doi: 10.1210/endrev/bnab035.
  • Sendl A, Schliack M, Löser R, Stanislaus F, Wagner H. 1992. Inhibition of cholesterol-synthesis invitro by extracts and isolated compounds prepared from garlic and wild garlic. Atherosclerosis. 94(1):79–85. doi: 10.1016/0021-9150(92)90190-r.
  • Shaghaghi MA, Abumweis SS, Jones PJH. 2013. Cholesterol-lowering efficacy of plant sterols/stanols provided in capsule and tablet formats: results of a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Acad Nutr Diet. 113(11):1494–1503. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2013.07.006.
  • Shrime MG, Bauer SR, McDonald AC, Chowdhury NH, Coltart CEM, Ding EL. 2011. Flavonoid-rich cocoa consumption affects multiple cardiovascular risk factors in a meta-analysis of short-term studies. J Nutr. 141(11):1982–1988. doi: 10.3945/jn.111.145482.
  • Sierksma A, Weststrate JA, Meijer GW. 1999. Spreads enriched with plant sterols, either esterified 4,4-dimethylsterols or free 4-desmethylsterols, and plasma total- and LDL-cholesterol concentrations. Br J Nutr. 82(4):273–282. doi: 10.1017/s0007114599001476.
  • Singh DK, Porter TD. 2006. Inhibition of sterol 4 alpha-methyl oxidase is the principal mechanism by which garlic decreases cholesterol synthesis. J Nutr. 136(3 Suppl):759S–764S. doi: 10.1093/jn/136.3.759S.
  • Singh S, Pathak N, Fatima E, Negi AS. 2021. Plant isoquinoline alkaloids: advances in the chemistry and biology of berberine. Eur J Med Chem. 226:113839. doi: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113839.
  • Sivamaruthi BS, Fern LA, Ismail D, Chaiyasut C. 2020. The influence of probiotics on bile acids in diseases and aging. Biomed Pharmacother. 128:110310. doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110310.
  • Snelson M, Jong J, Manolas D, Kok S, Louise A, Stern R, Kellow NJ. 2019. metabolic effects of resistant starch type 2: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutrients. 11(8):1833. doi: 10.3390/nu11081833.
  • Song Z, Cai Y, Lao X, Wang X, Lin X, Cui Y, Kalavagunta PK, Liao J, Jin L, Shang J, et al. 2019. Taxonomic profiling and populational patterns of bacterial bile salt hydrolase (BSH) genes based on worldwide human gut microbiome. Microbiome 7. 7(1):9. doi: 10.1186/s40168-0628-3.
  • Sridevi N, Vishwe P, Prabhune A. 2009. Hypocholesteremic effect of bile salt hydrolase from Lactobacillus buchneri ATCC 4005. Food Res Int. 42(4):516–520. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2009.02.016.
  • Stancu CS, Sanda GM, Deleanu M, Sima AV. 2014. Probiotics determine hypolipidemic and antioxidant effects in hyperlipidemic hamsters. Mol Nutr Food Res. 58(3):559–568. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201300224.
  • Stevinson C, Pittler MH, Ernst E. 2000. Garlic for treating hypercholesterolemia - a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Ann Intern Med. 133(6):420–429. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-133-6-200009190-00009.
  • Sui XN, Zhang TY, Jiang LZ. 2021. Soy protein: molecular structure revisited and recent advances in processing technologies. Ann Rev Food Sci Technol. 12:119–147. doi: 10.1146/annurev-food-062220-104405.
  • Thandapilly SJ, Ndou SP, Wang Y, Nyachoti CM, Ames NP. 2018. Barley beta-glucan increases fecal bile acid excretion and short chain fatty acid levels in mildly hypercholesterolemic individuals. Food Funct. 9(6):3092–3096. doi: 10.1039/c8fo00157j.
  • Ticho AL, Malhotra P, Dudeja PK, Gill RK, Alrefai WA. 2020. Intestinal absorption of bile acids in health and disease. Compr Physiol. 10(1):21–56. doi: 10.1002/cphy.c190007.
  • Varade S, Nadella M, Hirake A, Mungase SB, Ali A, Adela R. 2023. Effect of garlic on the components of metabolic syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Ethnopharmacol. 318(Pt B):116960–116960. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2023.116960.
  • Vuksan V, Jenkins AL, Rogovik AL, Fairgrieve CD, Jovanovski E, Leiter LA. 2011. Viscosity rather than quantity of dietary fibre predicts cholesterol-lowering effect in healthy individuals. Br J Nutr. 106(9):1349–1352. doi: 10.1017/s0007114511001711.
  • Wang G, Huang W, Xia Y, Xiong Z, Ai L. 2019. Cholesterol-lowering potentials of Lactobacillus strain overexpression of bile salt hydrolase on high cholesterol diet-induced hypercholesterolemic mice. Food Funct. 10(3):1684–1695. doi: 10.1039/c8fo02181c.
  • Wang L, Zhu H, Zhao Y, Jiao R, Lei L, Chen J, Wang X, Zhang Z, Huang Y, Wang T, et al. 2018. Cranberry anthocyanin as an herbal medicine lowers plasma cholesterol by increasing excretion of fecal sterols. Phytomedicine. 38:98–106. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2017.11.008.
  • Wang YN, Harding SV, Thandapilly SJ, Tosh SM, Jones PJH, Ames NP. 2017. Barley beta-glucan reduces blood cholesterol levels via interrupting bile acid metabolism. Br J Nutr. 118(10):822–829. doi: 10.1017/s0007114517002835.
  • Wei LW, Chai S, Yue C, Zhang H, Li JT, Qin N. 2023. Resveratrol protects osteocytes against oxidative stress in ovariectomized rats through AMPK/JNK1-dependent pathway leading to promotion of autophagy and inhibition of apoptosis. Cell Death Discov. 9(1):16. doi: 10.1038/s41420-023-01331-2.
  • Wu G, Cheng H, Guo H, Li Z, Li D, Xie Z. 2023. Tea polyphenol EGCG ameliorates obesity-related complications by regulating lipidomic pathway in leptin receptor knockout rats. J Nutr Biochem. 118:109349. doi: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2023.109349.
  • Wu LM, Zhao JJ, Wu LH, Zhang YH, Li JK. 2022. Simultaneous determination of squalene, tocopherols and phytosterols in edible vegetable oil by SPE combined with saponification and GC-MS. Lwt-Food Science and Technology. 169:114026. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2022.114026.
  • Xiao CW. 2008. Health effects of soy protein and isoflavones in humans. J Nutr. 138(6):1244S–1249S. doi: 10.1093/jn/138.6.1244S.
  • Xie Q, Mu K, Chen C, Gu S, Luo D, Fu W, Xue W. 2023. The high dose of inulin exacerbated food allergy through the excess accumulation of short-chain fatty acids in a BABL/c mouse model. Int J Biol Macromol. 230:123234. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.123234.
  • Xie Y, Gou L, Peng M, Zheng J, Chen L. 2021. Effects of soluble fiber supplementation on glycemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clin Nutr. 40(4):1800–1810. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2020.10.032.
  • Xiong XJ, Wang PQ, Li XK, Zhang YQ, Li SJ. 2017. The effects of red yeast rice dietary supplement on blood pressure, lipid profile, and C-reactive protein in hypertension: a systematic review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 57(9):1831–1851. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2015.1018987.
  • Xu M, Chen XL, Huang ZQ, Chen DW, Yu B, Chen H, Luo YH, Zheng P, Yu J, He J. 2020. Grape seed proanthocyanidin extract promotes skeletal muscle fiber type transformation via AMPK signaling pathway. J Nutr Biochem. 84:108462. doi: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2020.108462.
  • Xu R, Yang K, Li S, Dai M, Chen G. 2020. Effect of green tea consumption on blood lipids: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutr J. 19(1):48. doi: 10.1186/s12937-020-00557-5.
  • Xu X, Yi H, Wu J, Kuang T, Zhang J, Li Q, Du H, Xu T, Jiang G, Fan G. 2021. Therapeutic effect of berberine on metabolic diseases: both pharmacological data and clinical evidence. Biomed Pharmacother. 133:110984. doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110984.
  • Yang L, Zhu W, Zhang X, Zhou X, Wu W, Shen T. 2023. Efficacy and safety of berberine for several cardiovascular diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Phytomedicine. 112:154716. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2023.154716.
  • Ye YB, He KY, Li WL, Zhuo SY, Chen YM, Lu W, Wu SL, Liu J, Li YB, Zeng FF. 2021. Effects of daidzein and genistein on markers of cardiovascular disease risk among women with impaired glucose regulation: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Food Funct. 12(17):7997–8006. doi: 10.1039/d1fo00712b.
  • Yu L, Zhao R, Wang C, Zhang C, Chu C, Zhao J, Zhang H, Zhai Q, Chen W, Zhang H, et al. 2022. Effects of garlic supplementation on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Funct Foods. 99:105294. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2022.
  • Yuan F, Dong H, Fang K, Gong J, Lu F. 2018. Effects of green tea on lipid metabolism in overweight or obese people: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Mol Nutr Food Res. 62(1):1601122. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201601122.
  • Yuan HC, Meng Y, Bai H, Shen DQ, Wan BC, Chen LY. 2018. Meta-analysis indicates that resistant starch lowers serum total cholesterol and low-density cholesterol. Nutr Res. 54:1–11. doi: 10.1016/j.nutres.2018.02.008.
  • Zamani M, Kelishadi MR, Ashtary-Larky D, Amirani N, Goudarzi K, Torki IA, Bagheri R, Ghanavati M, Asbaghi O. 2023. The effects of green tea supplementation on cardiovascular risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Nutr. 9:1084455. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.1084455.
  • Zamani M, Zarei M, Nikbaf-Shandiz M, Hosseini S, Shiraseb F, Asbaghi O. 2022. The effects of berberine supplementation on cardiovascular risk factors in adults: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Front Nutr. 9:1013055. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.1013055.
  • Zanoni P, Velagapudi S, Yalcinkaya M, Rohrer L, von Eckardstein A. 2018. Endocytosis of lipoproteins. Atherosclerosis. 275:273–295. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2018.06.881.
  • Zhang B, Zhang Y, Xing X, Wang S. 2022. Health benefits of dietary polyphenols: insight into interindividual variability in absorption and metabolism. Curr Opin Food Sci. 48:100941. doi: 10.1016/j.cofs.2022.100941.
  • Zhang J, Zhang T, Tao G, Liu R, Chang M, Jin Q, Wang X. 2021. Characterization and determination of free phytosterols and phytosterol conjugates: the potential phytochemicals to classify different rice bran oil and rice bran. Food Chem. 344:128624. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128624.
  • Zhang LL, Zhou XT, Chen HJ, You LZ, Zhang T, Cheng M, Yao YD, Pan X, Yang XZ. 2023. Mulberry extract ameliorates T2DM-related symptoms via AMPK pathway in STZ-HFD-induced C57BL/6J mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 313:116475. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2023.116475.
  • Zhang W, Dong XY, Huang R. 2023. Antiparkinsonian effects of polyphenols: a narrative review with a focus on the modulation of the gut-brain axis. Pharmacol Res. 193:106787. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2023.106787.
  • Zhang Y, Wang G, Kong Y, Xu H, Xiao B, Liu Y, Zhou H. 2020. A comparative analysis of the essential oils from two species of garlic seedlings cultivated in China: chemical profile and anticoagulant potential. Food Funct. 11(7):6020–6027. doi: 10.1039/d0fo00845a.
  • Zhao FF, Chen LY, Jiang YR, Guo YX, Lu LJ, Lu CL, Xue X, Liu XH, Jin XY, Liu JP, et al. 2023. Red yeast rice preparations for dyslipidemia: an overview of systematic reviews and network meta-analysis. J Funct Foods. 104:105508. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2023.
  • Zhao YM, Chen ZY. 2018. Roles of spicy foods and their bioactive compounds in management of hypercholesterolemia. J Agric Food Chem. 66(33):8662–8671. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b02975.
  • Zhu B, Qi FY, Wu JJ, Yin GQ, Hua JW, Zhang QY, Qin LP. 2019. Red yeast rice: a systematic review of the traditional uses, chemistry, pharmacology, and quality control of an important chinese folk medicine. Front Pharmacol. 10:1449. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2019.01449.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.