The absurdity of the latent disease model in mental health: 10,130,814 ways to have a DSM-5-TR psychological disorder

References

• Aarts, A. A., Anderson, J. E., Anderson, C. J., Attridge, P. R., Attwood, A., Axt, J., Babel, M., Bahník, Š., Baranski, E., Barnett-Cowan, M., Bartmess, E., Beer, J., Bell, R., Bentley, H., Beyan, L., Binion, G., Borsboom, D., Bosch, A., Bosco, F. A., … Zuni, K. (2015). Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science, 349, aac4716-8. doi:10.1126/SCIENCE.AAC4716/SUPPL_FILE/AARTS-SM.PDF.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th edition: DSM-5-TR.
   Google Scholar
• Ballester-Arnal, R., Castro-Calvo, J., Giménez-García, C., Gil-Juliá, B., & Gil-Llario, M. D. (2020). Psychiatric comorbidity in compulsive sexual behavior disorder (CSBD). Addictive Behaviors, 107, 106384. doi:10.1016/J.ADDBEH.2020.106384.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borgogna, N. C., & Aita, S. L. (2022). Another failure of the latent disease model? The case of compulsive sexual behavior disorder. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 11(3), 615–619. doi:10.1556/2006.2022.00069.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brady, K. T. (1997). Posttraumatic stress disorder and comorbidity: Recognizing the many faces of PTSD. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 58(Suppl 9), 12–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant, R. A., Galatzer-Levy, I., & Hadzi-Pavlovic, D. (2023). The heterogeneity of posttraumatic stress disorder in DSM-5. JAMA Psychiatry, 80(2), 189–191. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.4092.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, Q. Y., Chen, Q., Feng, G. Y., Lindpaintner, K., Chen, Y., Sun, X., Chen, Z., Gao, Z., Tang, J., & He, L. (2005). Case-control association study of the close homologue of L1 (CHL1) gene and schizophrenia in the Chinese population. Schizophrenia Research, 73(2–3), 269–274. doi:10.1016/J.SCHRES.2004.06.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuijpers, P., & Cristea, I. A. (2015). What if a placebo effect explained all the activity of depression treatments? World Psychiatry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 14(3), 310–311. doi:10.1002/WPS.20249.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalgleish, T., Black, M., Johnston, D., & Bevan, A. (2020). Transdiagnostic approaches to mental health problems: Current status and future directions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 88(3), 179–195. doi:10.1037/CCP0000482.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dieleman, J. L., Cao, J., Chapin, A., Chen, C., Li, Z., Liu, A., Horst, C., Kaldjian, A., Matyasz, T., Scott, K. W., Bui, A. L., Campbell, M., Duber, H. C., Dunn, A. C., Flaxman, A. D., Fitzmaurice, C., Naghavi, M., Sadat, N., Shieh, P., … Murray, C. J. L. (2020). US health care spending by payer and health condition, 1996–2016. JAMA, 323(9), 863–884. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.0734.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elkins, D. N. (2009). The medical model in psychotherapy: Its limitations and failures. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 49(1), 66–84. doi:10.1177/0022167807307901.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flory, J. D., & Yehuda, R. (2015). Comorbidity between post-traumatic stress disorder and major depressive disorder: Alternative explanations and treatment considerations. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 17(2), 141–150. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2015.17.2/JFLORY.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friborg, O., Martinsen, E. W., Martinussen, M., Kaiser, S., Overgård, K. T., & Rosenvinge, J. H. (2014). Comorbidity of personality disorders in mood disorders: A meta-analytic review of 122 studies from 1988 to 2010. Journal of Affective Disorders, 152-154, 1–11. doi:10.1016/J.JAD.2013.08.023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friborg, O., Martinussen, M., Kaiser, S., Øvergård, K. T., Martinsen, E. W., Schmierer, P., & Rosenvinge, J. H. (2014). Personality disorders in eating disorder not otherwise specified and binge eating disorder: A meta-analysis of comorbidity studies. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 202(2), 119–125. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000000080.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galatzer-Levy, I. R., & Bryant, R. A. (2013). 636,120 ways to have posttraumatic stress disorder. Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 8(6), 651–662. doi:10.1177/1745691613504115.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gordon, D., & Heimberg, R. G. (2011). Reliability and validity of DSM-IV generalized anxiety disorder features. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(6), 813–821. doi:10.1016/J.JANXDIS.2011.04.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorman, J. M. (1996). Comorbid depression and anxiety spectrum disorders. Depression and Anxiety, 4(4), 160–168. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6394(1996)4:4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hayes, S. C., Ciarrochi, J., Hofmann, S. G., Chin, F., & Sahdra, B. (2022). Evolving an idionomic approach to processes of change: Towards a unified personalized science of human improvement. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 156, 104155. doi:10.1016/J.BRAT.2022.104155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, S. C., & Hofmann, S. G. (2017). The third wave of cognitive behavioral therapy and the rise of process‐based care. World Psychiatry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 16(3), 245–246. doi:10.1002/WPS.20442.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, S. C., Hofmann, S. G., Stanton, C. E., Carpenter, J. K., Sanford, B. T., Curtiss, J. E., & Ciarrochi, J. (2019). The role of the individual in the coming era of process-based therapy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 117, 40–53. doi:10.1016/J.BRAT.2018.10.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofmann, S. G., & Hayes, S. C. (2019). The future of intervention science: Process-based therapy. Clinical Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 7(1), 37–50. doi:10.1177/2167702618772296.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt, G. E., Malhi, G. S., Lai, H. M. X., & Cleary, M. (2020). Prevalence of comorbid substance use in major depressive disorder in community and clinical settings, 1990–2019: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 266, 288–304. doi:10.1016/J.JAD.2020.01.141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Insel, T., Cuthbert, B., Garvey, M., Heinssen, R., Pine, D. S., Quinn, K., Sanislow, C., & Wang, P. (2010). Research domain criteria (RDoC): Toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(7), 748–751. doi:10.1176/APPI.AJP.2010.09091379.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jia, P., Sun, J., Guo, A. Y., & Zhao, Z. (2010). SZGR: A comprehensive schizophrenia gene resource. Molecular Psychiatry, 15(5), 453–462. doi:10.1038/MP.2009.93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jurjako, M., Malatesti, L., & Brazil, I. A. (2020). Biocognitive classification of antisocial individuals without explanatory reductionism. Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 15(4), 957–972. doi:10.1177/1745691620904160.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 617–627. doi:10.1001/ARCHPSYC.62.6.617.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang, F. U., Kösters, M., Lang, S., Becker, T., & Jäger, M. (2013). Psychopathological long-term outcome of schizophrenia – a review. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 127(3), 173–182. doi:10.1111/acps.12030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leichsenring, F., Steinert, C., Rabung, S., & Ioannidis, J. P. A. (2022). The efficacy of psychotherapies and pharmacotherapies for mental disorders in adults: An umbrella review and meta-analytic evaluation of recent meta-analyses. World Psychiatry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 21(1), 133–145. doi:10.1002/WPS.20941.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lilienfeld, S. O., & Treadway, M. T. (2016). Clashing diagnostic approaches: DSM-ICD versus RDoC. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 12(1), 435–463. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipson, S. K., Lattie, E. G., & Eisenberg, D. (2019). Increased rates of mental health service utilization by U.S. college students: 10-year population-level trends (2007–2017). Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 70(1), 60–63. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201800332.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luborsky, L., Rosenthal, R., Diguer, L., Andrusyna, T. P., Berman, J. S., Levitt, J. T., Seligman, D. A., & Krause, E. D. (2002). The dodo bird verdict is alive and well–mostly. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9(1), 2–12. doi:10.1093/clipsy.9.1.2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maj, M. (2005). ‘Psychiatric comorbidity’: An artefact of current diagnostic systems? The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 186(3), 182–184. doi:10.1192/BJP.186.3.182.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Malik, M. L., & Beutler, L. E. (2002). The emergence of dissatisfaction with the DSM. In: L. E. Beutler & M. L. Malik (Eds.), Rethinking the DSM: A psychological perspective (pp. 3–15). American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10456-001.
   Google Scholar
• Marcus, D. K., O’Connell, D., Norris, A. L., & Sawaqdeh, A. (2014). Is the Dodo bird endangered in the 21st century? A meta-analysis of treatment comparison studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(7), 519–530. doi:10.1016/J.CPR.2014.08.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marek, S., Tervo-Clemmens, B., Calabro, F. J., Montez, D. F., Kay, B. P., Hatoum, A. S., Donohue, M. R., Foran, W., Miller, R. L., Hendrickson, T. J., Malone, S. M., Kandala, S., Feczko, E., Miranda-Dominguez, O., Graham, A. M., Earl, E. A., Perrone, A. J., Cordova, M., Doyle, O., … Dosenbach, N. U. F. (2022). Reproducible brain-wide association studies require thousands of individuals. Nature, 603(7902), 654–660. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04492-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayes, R., & Horwitz, A. V. (2005). DSM-III and the revolution in the classification of mental illness. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 41(3), 249–267. doi:10.1002/JHBS.20103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBain, R. K., Cantor, J., Pera, M. F., Breslau, J., Bravata, D. M., & Whaley, C. M. (2023). Mental health service utilization rates among commercially insured adults in the US during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. JAMA Health Forum, 4(1), e224936. doi:10.1001/jamahealthforum.2022.4936.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mehdi, S. M. A., Meyers, B., & Devanand, D. P. (2022). Is DSM-5 a failure? Analyzing the controversies surrounding the current American mental health diagnostic manual. Psychiatric Annals, 52(4), 161–169. doi:10.3928/00485713-20220302-02.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messer, S. B., & Wampold, B. E. (2002). Let’s face facts: Common factors are more potent than specific therapy ingredients. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9(1), 21–25. doi:10.1093/clipsy.9.1.21.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mojtabai, R., & Olfson, M. (2010). National trends in psychotropic medication polypharmacy in office-based psychiatry. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(1), 26–36. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moncrieff, J., Cooper, R. E., Stockmann, T., Amendola, S., Hengartner, M. P., & Horowitz, M. A. (2022). The serotonin theory of depression: A systematic umbrella review of the evidence. Molecular Psychiatry, 1-14. doi:10.1038/s41380-022-01661-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monroe, S. M., & Simons, A. D. (1991). Diathesis-stress theories in the context of life stress research: Implications for the depressive disorders. Psychological Bulletin, 110(3), 406–425. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.110.3.406.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien, K. M., & Vincent, N. K. (2003). Psychiatric comorbidity in anorexia and bulimia nervosa: Nature, prevalence, and causal relationships. Clinical Psychology Review, 23(1), 57–74. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(02)00201-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pariante, C. M. (2018). A parallel universe where psychiatry is like the restof medicine. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 27(2), 143–145. doi:10.1017/S2045796017000762.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, S. C., Kim, J. M., Jun, T. Y., Lee, M. S., Kim, J. B., Yim, H. W., & Park, Y. C. (2017). How many different symptom combinations fulfil the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder? Results from the CRESCEND study. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 71(3), 217–222. doi:10.1080/08039488.2016.1265584.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parnas, J. (2014). The RDoC program: Psychiatry without psyche? World Psychiatry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 13(1), 46–47. doi:10.1002/WPS.20101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pilgrim, D. (2014). Influencing mental health policy and planning: DSM-5 as a disciplinary challenge for psychology. Review of General Psychology, 18(4), 293–301. doi:10.1037/gpr0000021.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao, S., Yin, L., Xiang, Y., & So, H. C. (2021). Analysis of genetic differences between psychiatric disorders: Exploring pathways and cell types/tissues involved and ability to differentiate the disorders by polygenic scores. Translational Psychiatry, 11(1), 426. doi:10.1038/s41398-021-01545-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richter, D., Wall, A., Bruen, A., & Whittington, R. (2019). Is the global prevalence rate of adult mental illness increasing? Systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 140(5), 393–407. doi:10.1111/acps.13083.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross, C. A., & Margolis, R. L. (2019). Research domain criteria: Strengths, weaknesses, and potential alternatives for future psychiatric research. Molecular Neuropsychiatry, 5(4), 218–236. doi:10.1159/000501797.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shankman, S. A., & Gorka, S. M. (2015). Psychopathology research in the RDoC era: Unanswered questions and the importance of the psychophysiological unit of analysis. International Journal of Psychophysiology: Official Journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology, 98(2), 330–337. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.01.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, H., Fox, J. R. E., & Trayner, P. (2015). The lived experiences of individuals with Tourette syndrome or tic disorders: A meta-synthesis of qualitative studies. British Journal of Psychology (London, England: 1953), 106(4), 609–634. doi:10.1111/BJOP.12118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smoller, J. W. (2020). Anxiety genetics goes genomic. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 177(3), 190–194. doi:10.1176/APPI.AJP.2020.20010038.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spinhoven, P., Penninx, B. W., van Hemert, A. M., de Rooij, M., & Elzinga, B. M. (2014). Comorbidity of PTSD in anxiety and depressive disorders: Prevalence and shared risk factors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(8), 1320–1330. doi:10.1016/J.CHIABU.2014.01.017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas, J. J., Vartanian, L. R., & Brownell, K. D. (2009). The relationship between eating disorder not otherwise specified (EDNOS) and officially recognized eating disorders: Meta-analysis and implications for DSM. Psychological Bulletin, 135(3), 407–433. doi:10.1037/A0015326.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaillant, G. E. (1984). The disadvantages of DSM-III outweigh its advantages. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141(4), 542–545. doi:10.1176/ajp.141.4.542.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Rheenen, W., Peyrot, W. J., Schork, A. J., Lee, S. H., & Wray, N. R. (2019). Genetic correlations of polygenic disease traits: From theory to practice. Nature Reviews. Genetics, 20(10), 567–581. doi:10.1038/s41576-019-0137-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verheul, R., & Widiger, T. A. (2004). A meta-analysis of the prevalence and usage of the personality disorder not otherwise specified (PDNOS) diagnosis. Journal of Personality Disorders, 18(4), 309–319. doi:10.1521/pedi.2004.18.4.309.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wampold, B. E. (2015). How important are the common factors in psychotherapy? An update. World Psychiatry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 14(3), 270–277. doi:10.1002/WPS.20238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wampold, B. E., Mondin, G. W., Moody, M., Stich, F., Benson, K., & Ahn, H. N. (1997). A meta-analysis of outcome studies comparing bona fide psychotherapies: Empirically, “all must have prizes. Psychological Bulletin, 122(3), 203–215. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.122.3.203.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, T., Zhang, X., Li, A., Zhu, M., Liu, S., Qin, W., Li, J., Yu, C., Jiang, T., & Liu, B. (2017). Polygenic risk for five psychiatric disorders and cross-disorder and disorder-specific neural connectivity in two independent populations. NeuroImage. Clinical, 14, 441–449. doi:10.1016/J.NICL.2017.02.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weimer, K., Colloca, L., & Enck, P. (2015). Placebo effects in psychiatry: Mediators and moderators. The Lancet Psychiatry, 2(3), 246–257. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(14)00092-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2022). International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems (11th ed.).
   Google Scholar
• Young, G., Lareau, C., & Pierre, B. (2014). One quintillion ways to have PTSD comorbidity: Recommendations for the disordered DSM-5. Psychological Injury and Law, 7(1), 61–74. doi:10.1007/S12207-014-9186-Y/FIGURES/1.
   Google Scholar
• Zipursky, R. B., Reilly, T. J., & Murray, R. M. (2013). The myth of schizophrenia as a progressive brain disease. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 39(6), 1363–1372. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbs135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuckerman, M. (1999). Diathesis-stress models. In M. Zuckerman (Ed.), Vulnerability to psychopathology: A biosocial model (pp. 3–23). American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10316-001.
   Google Scholar