The psychometric properties of the cervical nonorganic signs in patients with neck pain: an assessment of pain expression

References

• GBD 2013 DALYs and HALE Collaborators. Global, regional, and national disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 306 diseases and injuries and healthy life expectancy (HALE) for 188 countries, 1990–2013: quantifying the epidemiological transition. Lancet. 2015;28:2145–2191.
   Google Scholar
• Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States. Nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses requiring days away from work, 2013. Department of Labor.
   Google Scholar
• Strine TW, Hootman JM. US national prevalence and correlates of low back and neck pain among adults. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;57:656–655.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waddell G, McCulloch JA, Kummel E, et al. Non-organic physical signs in low-back pain. Spine.1980;5:117–125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apeldoorn AT, Bosselaar H, Blom-Luberti T, et al. The reliability of nonorganic sign-testing and the Waddell score in patients with chronic low back pain. Spine. 2008;33:821–826.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fishbain DA, Cole B, Cutler RB, et al. A structured evidence-based review on the meaning of nonorganic physical signs: Waddell signs. Pain Med. 2003;4:141–181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oesch P, Meyer K, Jansen B, et al. What is the role of “nonorganic somatic components” in functional capacity evaluations in patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain undergoing fitness for work evaluation?. Spine. 2012;37:E243–E250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oesch P, Meyer K, Jansen B, et al. Functional capacity evaluation: performance of patients with chronic non-specific low back pain without Waddell signs. J Occup Rehabil. 2015;25:257–266.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rohrlich JT, Sadhu A, Sebastian A, et al. Risk factors for nonorganic low back pain in patients with worker's compensation. Spine J. 2014;14:1166–1170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vernon H. What does the concept of “non-organic signs/symptoms” mean to chiropractic MSK specialists? J Can Chiropr Assoc. 2011;55:12–15.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Waddell G, Bircher M, Finlayson D, et al. Symptoms and signs: physical disease or illness behaviour?. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1984;289:739–741.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waddell G, Pilowsky I, Bond MR. Clinical assessment and interpretation of abnormal illness behaviour in low back pain. Pain. 1989;39:41–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lechner DE, Bradbury SF, Bradley LA. Detecting sincerity of effort: a summary of methods and approaches. Phys Ther. 1998;78:867–888.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobel JB, Sollenberger P, Robinson R, et al. Cervical nonorganic signs: a new clinical tool to assess abnormal illness behavior in neck pain patients: a pilot study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2000;81:170–175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vernon H, Proctor D, Bakalovski D, et al. Simulation tests for cervical nonorganic signs: a study of face validity. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2010;33:20–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin RF. The relationship between personality, psychological well-being and cervical non-organic sign in patients with chronic neck pain. Unpublished master’s thesis, 2002, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
   Google Scholar
• Lin RF, Chang JJ, Lu YM, et al. Correlations between quality of life and psychological factors in patients with chronic neck pain. Kaohsiung J Med Sci. 2010;26:13–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Floyd FJ, Widaman KF. Factor analysis in the development and refinement of clinical assessment instruments. Psychol Assess. 1995;7:286–299.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ware JE, Jr, Sherbourne CD. The MOS 36-item short-form health survey (SF-36). I. Conceptual framework and item selection. Med Care. 1992;30:473–483.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merz EL, Malcarne VL, Roesch SC, et al. Measuring illness behavior in patients with systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2013;65:585–593.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lue YJ, Hsieh CL, Huang MH, et al. Development of a Chinese version of the Oswestry Disability Index version 2.1. Spine. 2008;33:2354–2360.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee JS, Suh KT, Kim JI, et al. Validation of the Korean version of the neck pain and disability scale. Asian Spine J. 2013;7:178–183.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stupar M, Côté P, Beaton DE, et al. Structural and construct validity of the Whiplash Disability Questionnaire in adults with acute whiplash-associated disorders. Spine J. 2015;15:2369–2377.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu JFR, Tseng HM, Tsai YJ. Assessment of health related quality of life in Taiwan (I): development and psychometric testing of SF-36 Taiwan version. Taiwan J Public Health. 2003;22:501–511.
   Google Scholar
• Tseng HM, Lu JFR, Tsai YJ. Assessment of health related quality of life in Taiwan (II): norming and validation of SF-36 Taiwan version. Taiwan J Public Health. 2003;22:512–518.
   Google Scholar
• Fleiss JL. Statistical methods for rates and proportions. New York: Wiley; 1981.
   Google Scholar
• Viera AJ, Garrett JM. Understanding interobserver agreement: the kappa statistic. Fam Med. 2005;37:360–363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bentler PM, Bonett DG. Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychol Bull. 1980;88:588–606.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods CM. Factor analysis of scales composed of binary items: illustration with the Maudsley Obsessional Compulsive Inventory. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2002;24:215–223.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu LT, Bentler PM. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct Equ Modeling. 1999;6:1–55.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schreiber JB. Core reporting practices in structural equation modeling. Res Social Adm Pharm. 2008;4:83–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ware JE, Snow KK, Kosinski M, et al. SF-36 Health Survey: Manual and Interpretation Guide. Lincoln: QualityMetric, 2000;3:1–10.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen J. A power primer. Psychol Bull. 1992;112:155–159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prkachin KM. Assessing pain by facial expression: facial expression as nexus. Pain Res Manag. 2009;14:53–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams AC. Facial expression of pain: an evolutionary account. Behav Brain Sci. 2002;5:439–455.
   Google Scholar
• Vlaeyen JW, Linton SJ. Fear-avoidance and its consequences in chronic musculoskeletal pain: a state of the art. Pain. 2000;85:317–332.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ranney D. A proposed neuroanatomical basis of Waddell's nonorganic signs. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2010;89:1036–1042.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Main CJ, Waddell G. Behavioral responses to examination. A reappraisal of the interpretation of “nonorganic signs”. Spine. 1998;23:2367–2371.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centeno CJ, Elkins WL, Freeman M. Waddell's signs revisited?. Spine.2004;29:1392. discussion 1393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giles LG. Re: Centeno CJ, Elkins WL, Freeman M. Editorial. Waddell's signs revisited? Spine. 2004;30:265.
   Google Scholar
• Leeuw M, Goossens MEJB, Linton SJ, et al. The fear-avoidance model of musculoskeletal pain: current state of scientific evidence. J Behav Med. 2007;30:77–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costello AB, Osborne J. Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Pract Assess Res Eval. 2005;10:1–9.
   Google Scholar
• Fabrigar LR, Wegener DT, MarCallum RC, et al. Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. Psychol Methods. 1999;4:272–299.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan YH. Biostatistics 104: correlational analysis. Singapore Med J. 2003;40:614–619.
   Google Scholar
• Cole DA. Utility of confirmatory factor analysis in test validation research. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1987;55:584–594.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar