2,323
Views
22
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Cumulative adverse effects of offshore wind energy development on wildlife

&
Pages 1-21 | Received 15 Apr 2014, Accepted 02 Oct 2014, Published online: 14 Nov 2014

References

  • Ahlen, I., H.J. Baagoe, and L. Bach. 2009. “Behavior of Scandinavian Bats During Migration and Foraging at Sea.” Journal of Mammalogy 90 (6): 1318–1323.
  • Allen, B.M., R.P. Angliss, and P.R. Wade. 2011. Alaska Marine Mammal Stock Assessments, 2010. Seattle, WA: Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Mammal Laboratory, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service.
  • Bain, M.B., J.S. Irving, R.D. Olsen, E.A. Stull, and G.W. Witmer. 1986. Cumulative Impact Assessment: Evaluating the Environmental Effects of Multiple Human Developments. Argonne, IL: Argonne National Laboratory, Energy Environmental Systems Division.
  • Baxter, W., W.A. Ross, and H. Spaling. 2001. “Improving the Practice of Cumulative Effects Assessment in Canada.” Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal 19 (4): 253–262.
  • Bendor, T. 2009. “A Dynamic Analysis of the Wetland Mitigation Process and Its Effects on No Net Loss Policy.” Landscape and Urban Planning 89 (1–2): 17–27.
  • Boehlert, G., and A. Gill. 2010. “Environmental and Ecological Effects of Ocean Renewable Energy Development: A Current Synthesis.” Oceanography 23 (2): 68–81.
  • BOEM. 2012. Commercial Wind Lease Issuance and Site Assessment Activities on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Offshore Rhode Island and Massachusetts: Environmental Assessment. Herndon, VA: U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Ocean Energy Management Office of Renewable Energy Programs.
  • Boshamer, J.P.C., and J.P. Bekker. 2008. “Nathusius’ Pipistrelles (Pipistrellus Nathusii) and Other Species of Bats on Offshore Platforms in the Dutch Sector of the North Sea.” Lutra 51 (1): 17–36.
  • Boswell, K.M., R.J.D. Wells, J.H. Cowan Jr, and C.A. Wilson. 2010. “Biomass, Density, and Size Distributions of Fishes Associated with Large-Scale Artificial Reef Complex in the Gulf of Mexico.” Bulletin of Marine Science 86 (4): 879–889.
  • Bronner, C.E., A.M. Bartlett, D.C. Lambert, A.J. Rabideau, S.L. Whiteway, and S.J. Bennett. 2013. “An Assessment of U.S. Stream Compensatory Mitigation Policy: Necessary Changes to Protect Ecosystem Functions and Services.” Journal of the American Water Resources Association 49 (2): 449–462.
  • Brown, S.C.V.P.L.M. 2001. “Effectiveness of Compensatory Wetland Mitigation in Massachusetts, USA.” Wetlands 21 (4): 508–518.
  • BRP. 2006. State of New Jersey Blue Ribbon Panel on Development of Wind Turbine Facilities in Coastal Waters Final Report. Prepared for Gov. Jon S. Corzine. Trenton, New Jersey: Blue Ribbon Panel on Development of Wind Turbine Facilities in Coastal Waters.
  • BTM Consult ApS. 2012. International Wind Energy Development: Offshore Report 2013. Chicago, IL: Navigant Consulting.
  • Burger, J., C. Gordon, J. Lawrence, J. Newman, G. Forcey, and L. Vlietstra. 2011. “Risk Evaluation for Federally Listed (Roseate Tern, Piping Plover) or Candidate (Red Knot) Bird Species in Offshore Waters: A First Step for Managing the Potential Impacts of Wind Facility Development on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf.” Renewable Energy 36 (1): 338–351.
  • Burkhard, B., and K. Gee. 2012. “Establishing the Resilience of a Coastal-Marine Social-Ecological System to the Installation of Offshore Wind Farms.” Ecology and Society 17 (4) 32. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol17/iss4/art32/
  • Burris, R.K., and L.W. Canter. 1997. “Cumulative Impacts Are Not Properly Addressed in Environmental Assessments.” Environmental Impact Assessment Review 17 (1): 5–18.
  • Busch, M., A. Kannen, S. Garthe, and M. Jessopp. 2013. “Consequences of a Cumulative Perspective on Marine Environmental Impacts: Offshore Wind Farming and Seabirds at North Sea Scale in Context of the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive.” Ocean and Coastal Management 71: 213–224.
  • Canter, L.W. 2012. Guidance on Cumulative Effects Analysis in Environmental Assessments and Environmental Impact Statements. Gloucester, MA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
  • Canter, L.W., and J. Kamath. 1995. “Questionnaire Checklist for Cumulative Impacts.” Environmental Impact Assessment Review 15 (4): 311–339.
  • CEC. 2008. Offshore Wind Energy: Action Needed to Deliver on the Energy Policy Objectives for 2020 and Beyond. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities.
  • CEQ. 1997. Considering Cumulative Effects Under the National Environmental Policy Act. Washington, D.C.: Council on Environmental Quality.
  • Continental Shelf Associates. 2004. Explosive Removal of Offshore Structures Information Synthesis Report. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region.
  • Cook, A.S.C.P., V.H. Ross-Smith, S. Roos, N.H.K. Burton, N. Beale, C. Coleman, H. Daniel, et al. 2011. Identifying a Range of Options to Prevent or Reduce Avian Collision with Offshore Wind Farms Using a UK-Based Case Study. Thetford, Norfolk: British Trust for Ornithology.
  • Cooper, L.M. 2004. Guidelines for Cumulative Effects Assessment in SEA of Plans. EPMG Occasional Paper 04/LMC/CEA. London: Imperial College.
  • Cooper, T.A., and L.W. Canter. 1997. “Documentation of Cumulative Impacts in Environmental Impact Statements.” Environmental Impact Assessment Review 17 (6): 385–411.
  • Cooper, L.M., and W.R. Sheate. 2002. “Cumulative Effects Assessment: A Review of UK Environmental Impact Statements.” Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 22: 415–439.
  • Crain, C.M., K. Kroeker, and B.S. Halpern. 2008. “Interactive and Cumulative Effects of Multiple Human Stressors in Marine Systems.” Ecology Letters 11 (12): 1304–1315.
  • Crichton, D. 1999. “The Risk Triangle.” In Natural Disaster Management, edited by J. Ingleton, 102–103. London: Tudor Rose.
  • Cryan, P.M. 2008. “Mating Behavior as a Possible Cause of Bat Fatalities at Wind Turbines.” Journal of Wildlife Management Journal of Wildlife Management 72 (3): 845–849.
  • Cryan, P.M., and R.M.R. Barclay. 2009. “Causes of Bat Fatalities at Wind Turbines: Hypotheses and Predictions.” Journal of Mammalogy 90 (6): 1330–1340.
  • Cryan, P.M., and A.C. Brown. 2007. “Migration of Bats Past a Remote Island Offers Clues Toward the Problem of Bat Fatalities at Wind Turbines.” Biological Conservation 139: 1–11.
  • David, J.A. 2006. “Likely Sensitivity of Bottlenose Dolphins to Pile-Driving Noise.” Water and Environment Journal 20 (1): 48–54.
  • Desholm, M. 2009. “Avian Sensitivity to Mortality: Prioritising Migratory Bird Species for Assessment at Proposed Wind Farms.” Journal of Environmental Management 90 (8): 2672–2679.
  • Desholm, M., and J. Kahlert. 2005. “Avian Collision Risk at an Offshore Wind Farm.” Biological Letters 1: 296–298.
  • DOE. 2011. A National Offshore Wind Strategy: Creating an Offshore Wind Energy Industry in the United States. Washington, D.C.: Department of Energy.
  • DOE. 2013. Financial Assistance Request for Information: Environmental Research and Observations at the First U.S. Offshore Wind Facilities. Golden, CO: Department of Energy. Request For Information: DE-FOA-0000911 CFDA Number: 81.087.
  • Dolman, S., and M. Simmonds. 2010. “Towards Best Environmental Practice for Cetacean Conservation in Developing Scotland's Marine Renewable Energy.” Marine Policy 34 (5): 1021–1027.
  • Doyle, M.W., and D.F. Shields. 2012. “Compensatory Mitigation for Streams under the Clean Water Act: Reassessing Science and Redirecting Policy.” American Water Resource Association 48 (3): 494–509.
  • Drewitt, A.L., and R.H.W. Langston. 2006. “Assessing the Impacts of Wind Farms on Birds.” Ibis 148 (01): 29–42.
  • Edren, S.M.C., S.M. Andersen, J. Teilmann, J. Carstensen, P.B. Harders, R. Dietz, and L.A. Miller. 2010. “The Effect of a Large Danish Offshore Wind Farm on Harbor and Gray Seal Haul-out Behavior.” Marine Mammal Science 26 (3): 614–634.
  • European Commission. 2007. Guidance Document on Article 6(4) of the ‘Habitats Directive’ 92/43/EEC Brussels: European Commission.
  • Everaert, J., and E.W.M. Stienen. 2007. “Impact of Wind Turbines on Birds in Zeebrugge (Belgium).” Biodiversity and Conservation 16 (12): 3345–3359.
  • EWEA. 2013. The European Offshore Wind Industry: Key Trends and Statistics 2012. Brussels: European Wind Energy Association.
  • Fox, A.D., M. Desholm, J. Kahlert, T.K. Christensen, and I.B. Krag Petersen. 2006. “Information Needs to Support Environmental Impact Assessment of the Effects of European Marine Offshore Wind Farms on Birds.” Ibis 148 (01): 129–144.
  • Furness, R.W., H.M. Wade, and E.A. Masden. 2013. “Assessing Vulnerability of Marine Bird Populations to Offshore Wind Farms.” Journal of Environmental Management 119: 56–66.
  • Garthe, S., and O. Huppop. 2004. “Scaling Possible Adverse Effects of Marine Wind Farms on Seabirds: Developing and Applying a Vulnerability Index.” Journal of Applied Ecology 41 (4): 724–734.
  • Geo-Marine Inc. 2010. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection Baseline Studies Final Report. Plano, TX: Geo-Marine, Inc.
  • Gill, A.B., M. Bartlett, and F. Thomsen. 2012. “Potential Interactions Between Diadromous Fishes of U.K. Conservation Importance and the Electromagnetic Fields and Subsea Noise from Marine Renewable Energy Developments.” Journal of Fish Biology 81 (2): 664–695.
  • Grady, F.V., and S.L. Olson. 2006. “Fossil Bats from Quaternary Deposits on Bermuda (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae).” Journal of Mammalogy 87 (1): 148–152.
  • Halpern, B.S., K.L. McLeod, A.A. Rosenberg, and L.B. Crowder. 2008. “Managing for Cumulative Impacts in Ecosystem-Based Management Through Ocean Zoning.” Ocean and Coastal Management 51 (3): 203–211.
  • Hatch, S.K., E.E. Connelly, T.J. Divoll, I.J. Stenhouse, and K.A. Williams. 2013. “Offshore Observations of Eastern Red Bats (Lasiurus Borealis) in the Mid-Atlantic United States Using Multiple Survey Methods. Biodiversity Research Institute.” PLoS ONE 8 (12): e83803.
  • Hegmann, G., C. Cocklin, R. Creasey, S. Dupuis, A. Kennedy, L. Kingsley, W. Ross, H. Spaling, and D. Stalker. 1999. Cumulative Effects Assessment Practitioners Guide. Hull, Quebec, Canada: AXYS Environmental Consulting Ltd.
  • Hirst, A.G., and P.G. Rodhouse. 2000. “Impacts of Geophysical Seismic Surveying on Fishing Success.” Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 10: 113–118.
  • Hyder, P.L.C. 1999. Consulting Guidelines for the Assessment of Indirect and Cumulative Impacts as Well as Impact Interactions. Brussels: EC DGX1 Environment, Nuclear Safety and Civil Protection.
  • Inger, R., M.J. Attrill, S. Bearhop, A.C. Broderick, W.J. Grecian, D.J. Hodgson, C. Mills, et al. 2009. “Marine Renewable Energy: Potential Benefits to Biodiversity? An Urgent Call for Research.” Journal of Applied Ecology 46 (6): 1145–1153.
  • Irving, J.S., M.B. Bain, E.A. Stull, and G.W. Witmer. 1986. “Cumulative Impacts: Real or Imagined.” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Idaho Chapter of the American Fisheries Society, Boise, ID, March 6.
  • Johnson, J.B., J.E. Gates, and N.P. Zegre. 2011. “Monitoring Seasonal Bat Activity on a Coastal Barrier Island in Maryland, USA.” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 173 (1–4): 1–4.
  • Kikuchi, R. 2010. “Risk Formulation for the Sonic Effects of Offshore Wind Farms on Fish in the EU Region.” Marine Pollution Bulletin 60 (2): 172–177.
  • King, S., I.M.D. Maclean, T. Norman, and A. Prior. 2009. Developing Guidance on Ornithological Cumulative Impact Assessment for Offshore Wind Farm Developers. London: COWRIE.
  • Kinlan, B., R. Rakin, and C. Caldow. 2013. “Predictive Models of At-Sea Marine Bird Occurrence and Abundance in the Mid-Atlantic.” Paper presented at the Atlantic Marine Bird Conservation Cooperative, Charleston, South Carolina, March 6–8. http://www.acjv.org/Marine_Bird_page/workshop_2013/Kinlan_NOAA_NCCOS_Mid-Atlantic_Predictive_Modeling.pdf.
  • Krijgsveld, K.L., R.C. Fijn, M. Japink, P.W. van Horssen, C. Heunks, M.P. Collier, H. Poot, D. Beuker, and S. Dirksen. 2011. Effect Studies Offshore Wind Project Egmond Aan Zee. Final Report on Fluxes, Flight Altitudes and Behavior of Flying Birds. Noordzeewind Report Nr Owez_R_231_T1_20111114_Flux&Flight. Bureau Waardenburg Report Nr 10-219. NoordzeeWind, IJmuiden, The Netherlands.
  • Kunz, T.H., E.B. Arnett, W.P. Erickson, A.R. Hoar, G.D. Johnson, R.P. Larkin, M.D. Strickland, R.W. Thresher, and M.D. Tuttle. 2007. “Ecological Impacts of Wind Energy Development on Bats: Questions, Research Needs, and Hypotheses.” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5 (6): 315–324.
  • Langston, R.H.W. 2013. “Birds and Wind Projects across the Pond: A UK Perspective.” Wildlife Society Bulletin 37 (1): 5–18.
  • Lapena, P.B., K.M. Wijnberg, A. Stein, and S.J.M.H. Hulscher. 2013. “Spatial Variogram Estimation from Temporally Aggregated Seabird Count Data.” Environmental and Ecological Statistics 20: 353–375.
  • Larsen, J.K., and M. Guillemette. 2007. “Effects of Wind Turbines on Flight Behaviour of Wintering Common Eiders: Implications for Habitat Use and Collision Risk.” Journal of Applied Ecology 44 (3): 516–522.
  • Leonhard, S.B., J. Pedersen, P.N. Grøn, H. Skov, J. Jansen, C. Topping, and I.K. Petersen. 2013. “Wind Farms Affect Common Scoter and Red-Throated Diver Behaviour.” In Danish Offshore Wind: Key Environmental Issues – A Follow-up, 70–93. The Environment Group, The Danish Energy Agency, The Danish Nature Agency, DONG Energy and Vattenfall ( Chapter 5). Hvidovre, Denmark: KLS Grafisk Hus A/S. http://www.orbicon.dk/media/Havvindm%C3%B8llebog.pdf
  • Levrel H., Pioch S., and Spieler R. 2012. “Compensatory Mitigation in Marine Ecosystems: Which Indicators for Assessing the ‘‘No Net Loss’’ Goal of Ecosystem Services and Ecological Functions?” Marine Policy 36 (6): 1202–1210.
  • Lindeboom, H.J., H.J. Kouwenhoven, M.J.N. Bergman, S. Bouma, S. Brasseur, R. Daan, R.C. Fijn, et al. 2011. “Short-Term Ecological Effects of an Offshore Wind Farm in the Dutch Coastal Zone: A Compilation.” Environmental Research Letters 6 (3): 035101. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/6/3/035101
  • Linley, E.A.S., T.A. Wilding, K. Black, A.J.S. Hawkins, and S. Mangi. 2007. Review of the Reef Effects of Offshore Wind Farm Structures and Their Potential for Enhancement and Mitigation ( Contract No: RFCA/005/0029P). London: PML Applications Ltd and the Scottish Association for Marine Science to the Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR). http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http:/www.berr.gov.uk/files/file43528.pdf
  • Lopez, A., B. Roberts, D. Heimiller, N. Blair, and G. Porro. 2012. U.S. Renewable Energy Technical Potentials: A GIS-Based Analysis ( NREL/TP-6A20-51946). Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Lab.
  • Ma, Z., D.R. Becker, and M.A. Kilgore. 2012. “Barriers to and Opportunities for Effective Cumulative Impact Assessment Within State-Level Environmental Review Frameworks in the United States.” Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 55 (7): 961–978.
  • MacDonald, L.H. 2000. “Evaluating and Managing Cumulative Effects: Process and Constraints.” Environmental Management 26: 299–316.
  • Maclean, I.M.D., M.M. Rehfisch, C.B. Thaxter, and H. Skov. 2013. “Evaluating the Statistical Power of Detecting Changes in the Abundance of Seabirds at Sea.” Ibis 155 (1): 113–126.
  • Madsen, P.T., M. Wahlberg, J. Tougaard, K. Lucke, and P. Tyack. 2006. “Wind Turbine Underwater Noise and Marine Mammals: Implications of Current Knowledge and Data Needs.” Marine Ecology Progress Series 309: 279–295.
  • Manwell, J.F. M.J.G.R.A.L. 2009. Wind Energy Explained: Theory, Design and Application [ in English]. Chichester: Wiley.
  • Masden, E.A., R.W. Furness, D.T. Haydon, A.D. Fox, and R. Bullman. 2010. “Cumulative Impact Assessments and Bird/Wind Farm Interactions: Developing a Conceptual Framework.” Environmental Impact Assessment Review 30 (1): 1–7.
  • Masden, E.A., D.T. Haydon, A.D. Fox, R.W. Furness, R. Bullman, and M. Desholm. 2009. “Barriers to Movement: Impacts of Wind Farms on Migrating Birds.” ICES Journal of Marine Science 66 (4): 746–753.
  • McCann, J. 2012. Developing Environmental Protocols and Modeling Tools to Support Ocean Renewable Energy and Stewardship. OCS Study BOEM 2012-082. Herndon, VA: US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Office of Renewable Energy Programs.
  • Michel, J. 2013. South Atlantic Information Resources: Data Search and Literature Synthesis. OCS Study BOEM 2013-01157. New Orleans, LA: US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region.
  • Michel, J., H. Dunagan, C. Boring, E. Healy, W. Evans, J.M. Dean, A. McGillis, and J. Hain. 2007. Worldwide Synthesis and Analysis of Existing Information Regarding Environmental Effects of Alternative Energy Uses on the Outer Continental Shelf. OCS MMS 2007-038, 254. Herndon, VA: Minerals Management Service (MMS).
  • MMS. 2007. Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement for Alternative Energy Development and Production and Alternate Use of Facilities on the Outer Continental Shelf: Final Environmental Impact Statement. OCS EIS/EA MMS 2007-046. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service.
  • Newton, I. 2013. Bird Populations. London: William Collins.
  • Norman, T.B., R.S.K. Buisson, and N.P. Askew. 2007. Report on the Cowrie Workshop on the Cumulative Impact of Offshore Windfarms on Birds. Report prepared by RPS for COWRIE. COWRIE CIBIRD-01-2007. London: COWRIE.
  • Parkins, J.R. 2011. “Deliberative Democracy, Institution Building, and the Pragmatics of Cumulative Effects Assessment.” Ecology and Society 16 (3): 20. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-04236-160320
  • Pelletier, S.K., K.S. Omland, K.S. Watrous, and T.S. Peterson. 2013. Information Synthesis on the Potential for Bat Interactions with Offshore Wind Facilities: Final Report. OCS Study BOEM 2013-01163, 119. Herndon, VA: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management.
  • Percival, S. 2010. Kentish Flats Offshore Wind Project: Diver Surveys 2009–10. Report Commissioned by Vattenfall Wind Power. Durham: Ecology Consulting.
  • Perrow, M.R., J.J. Gilroy, E.R. Skeate, and M.L. Tomlinson. 2011. “Effects of the Construction of Scroby Sands Offshore Wind Farm on the Prey Base of Little Tern Sternula Albifrons at Its Most Important UK Colony.” Marine Pollution Bulletin 62 (8): 1661–1670.
  • Petersen, I.K., T.K. Christensen, J. Kahlert, M. Desholm, and A.D. Fox. 2006. Final Results of Bird Studies at the Offshore Wind Farms at Nysted and Horns Rev, Denmark: National Environmental Research Institute Report. Rønde: Commissioned by DONG energy and Vattenfall A/S.
  • Petersen, I.K., and A.D. Fox. 2007. Changes in Bird Habitat Utilisation Around the Horns Rev 1 Offshore Wind Project, with Particular Emphasis on Common Scoter. Report commissioned by Vattenfall A/S by National Environmental Research Institute. Aarhus, Denmark: University of Aarhus.
  • Petersen, I.K., M.L. MacKenzie, E. Rexstad, M.S. Wisz, and A.D. Fox. 2011. Comparing Pre- and Post-Construction Distributions of Long-Tailed Ducks Clangula Hyemalis in and Around the Nysted Offshore Wind Farm, Denmark: A Quasi-Designed Experiment Accounting for Imperfect Detection, Local Surface Features and Autocorrelation. CREEM Technical Report, no. 2011–1. St Andrews, UK: University of St Andrews.
  • Pettersson, J. 2005. The Impact of Offshore Wind Farms on Bird Life in Southern Kalmar Sound Sweden Final Report Based on Studies 1999–2003. Lund, Sweden: Department of Animal Ecology, Lund University.
  • Piper, J.M. 2001. “Barriers to Implementation of Cumulative Effects Assessment.” Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management 3 (4): 465–481.
  • Plonczkier, P., and I.C. Simms. 2012. “Radar Monitoring of Migrating Pink-Footed Geese: Behavioural Responses to Offshore Wind Farm Development.” Journal of Applied Ecology 49 (5): 1187–1194.
  • Poerink, B.J., S. Lagerveld, and H. Verdaat. 2013. Pilot Study Bat Activity in the Dutch Offshore Wind Farm Owez and Pawp. Imares Report Number C026/13/Tfc Report Number 20120402. Wageningen, Netherlands: IMARES.
  • Poot, M.J.M., van Horssen, P.W., M.P. Collier, R. Lensink, and S. Dirksen. 2011. Effect Studies Offshore Wind Egmond Aan Zee: Cumulative Effects on Seabirds: A Modelling Approach to Estimate Effects on Population Levels in Seabirds. Culemborg, Netherlands: Bureau Waardenburg bv, commissioned by Noordzeewind.
  • Ram, B. 2011. “Assessing Integrated Risks of Offshore Wind Projects: Moving Towards Gigawatt-Scale Deployments.” Wind Engineering 35 (3): 247–266.
  • Renewable UK. 2011. Consenting Lessons Learned: An Offshore Wind Industry Review of Past Concerns, Lessons Learned and Future Challenges. London: Renewable UK.
  • Renewable UK. 2013. Cumulative Impact Assessment Guidelines: Guiding Principles for Cumulative Impacts Assessment in Offshore Wind Farms. London: Renewable UK.
  • Salmon, M. 2003. “Artificial Night Lighting and Sea Turtles.” Biologist 50 (4): 163–168.
  • Schultz, C. 2010. “Challenges in Connecting Cumulative Effects Analysis to Effective Wildlife Conservation Planning.” Bioscience 60 (7): 545–551.
  • Schultz, C.A. 2012. “History of the Cumulative Effects Analysis Requirement under Nepa and Its Interpretation in U.S. Forest Service Case Law.” Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation 27 (1): 125–190.
  • Smallwood, K.S. 2013. “Comparing Bird and Bat Fatality-Rate Estimates Among North American Wind-Energy Projects.” Wildlife Society Bulletin 37 (1): 19–33.
  • Smith, M.D. 2006. “Cumulative Impact Assessment Under the National Environmental Policy Act: An Analysis of Recent Case Law.” Environmental Practice 8 (4): 228–240.
  • Teilmann, J., J. Tougaard, and J. Carstensen. 2012. Effects on Harbour Porpoises from Rodsand 2 Offshore Wind Farm. Scientific Report from DCE: Danish Centre for Environment and Energy. Number 42. Aahrus, Denmark: Department of Bioscience, Aahrus University.
  • Thompson, P.M., D. Lusseau, T. Barton, D. Simmons, J. Rusin, and H. Bailey. 2010. “Assessing the Responses of Coastal Cetaceans to the Construction of Offshore Wind Turbines.” Marine Pollution Bulletin 60 (8): 1200–1208.
  • Topping, C., and I.K. Petersen. 2011. Report on a Red-Throated Diver Agent-Based Model to Assess the Cumulative Impact from Offshore Wind Farms. Aarhus, Denmark: Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University.
  • Tougaard, J., J. Carstensen, J. Teilmann, and N.I. Bech. 2005. Effects of the Nysted Offshore Wind Farm on Harbour Porpoises: Annual Status Report for the T-Pod Monitoring Program. Technical Report to Energi E2 A/S. Aarhus, Denmark: National Environmental Research Institute, Ministry of the Environment.
  • UKDECC. 2011. UK Renewable Energy Roadmap. London: Department of Energy and Climate Change.
  • Waring, G.T., E. Josephson, K. Maze-Foley, and P.E. Rosel. 2009. US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Marine Mammal Stock Assessments 2009. Woods Hole, MA: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Region, Northeast Fisheries Science Center.
  • Williams, K.A., D. DellaSala, A.D. Fox, M.W. Goodale, P.G.R. Jodice, B. Kinlan, R.H.W. Langston, et al. “Development of Wind Energy for Offshore Regions of the Eastern United States: Known Effects, Data Gaps, and Policy Recommendations for Fish and Wildlife.” Forthcoming.
  • Willmott, J.R., G. Forcey, and A. Kent. 2013. The Relative Vulnerability of Migratory Bird Species to Offshore Wind Energy Projects on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: An Assessment Method and Database. Final Report to the U.S. Department of the Interior. OCS Study BOEM 2013-207, 275. Herndon, VA: Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Office of Renewable Energy Programs.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.