3,562
Views
252
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Complex working memory span tasks and higher-order cognition: A latent-variable analysis of the relationship between processing and storage

, , , &
Pages 635-654 | Received 20 Oct 2008, Published online: 06 Jul 2009

References

  • Ackerman , P. L. , Beier , M. E. and Boyle , M. O. 2002 . Individual differences in working memory within a nomological network of cognitive and perceptual speed abilities . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 131 : 567 – 589 .
  • Ackerman , P. L , Beier , M. E. and Boyle , M. O. 2005 . Working memory and intelligence: The same or different constructs? . Psychological Bulletin , 131 : 30 – 60 .
  • Baddeley , A. D. and Hitch , G. 1974 . “ Working memory ” . In The psychology of learning and motivation , Edited by: Bower , G. H. Vol. 8 , 47 – 89 . New York : Academic Press .
  • Barrouillet , P. , Bernardin , S. and Camos , V. 2004 . Time constraints and resource sharing in adults’ working memory spans . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 133 : 83 – 100 .
  • Barrouillet , P. , Bernardin , S. , Portrat , S. , Vergauwe , E. and Camos , V. 2007 . Time and cognitive load in working memory . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 33 : 570 – 585 .
  • Barrouillet , P. and Camos , V. 2001 . Developmental increase in working memory span: Resource sharing or temporal decay? . Journal of Memory and Language , 45 : 1 – 20 .
  • Bayliss , D. M. , Jarrold , C. , Baddeley , A. D. , Gunn , D. M. and Leigh , D. 2005 . Mapping the developmental constraints on working memory span performance . Developmental Psychology , 41 : 579 – 597 .
  • Bayliss , D. M. , Jarrold , C. , Gunn , D. M. and Baddeley , A. D. 2003 . The complexities of complex span: Explaining individual differences in working memory in children and adults . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 132 : 71 – 92 .
  • Berger , F.R. , Gupta , W.B. , Berger , R.M. Skinner , J. 1990 Air Force Officer Qualifying Test (AFOQT) form P: Test manual (AFHRL–TR-89-56) . Brooks Air Force Base, TX : Manpower and Personnel Division, Air Force Human Resources Laboratory .
  • Carpenter , P. A. and Just , M. A. 1989 . “ The role of working memory in language comprehension ” . In Complex information processing: The impact of Herbert A. Simon , Edited by: Klahr , D. and Kotovsky , K. 31 – 68 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc .
  • Case , R. , Kurland , D. M. and Goldberg , J. 1982 . Operational efficiency and the growth of short-term memory span . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 33 : 386 – 404 .
  • Caspari , I. , Parkinson , S. R. , LaPointe , L. L. and Katz , R. C. 1998 . Working memory and aphasia . Brain and Cognition , 37 : 205 – 223 .
  • Chuah , Y. M. L. and Maybery , M. T. 1999 . Verbal and spatial short-term memory: Common sources of developmental change? . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 73 : 7 – 44 .
  • Colom , R. , Shih , P. C. , Flores-Mendoza , C. and Quiroga , M. A. 2006 . The real relationship between short-term memory and working memory . Memory , 14 : 804 – 813 .
  • Conway , A. R. A. , Cowan , N. , Bunting , M. F. , Therriault , D. J. and Minkoff , S. R. B. 2002 . A latent variable analysis of working memory capacity, short-term memory capacity, processing speed, and general fluid intelligence . Intelligence , 30 : 163 – 183 .
  • Conway , A. R. A. and Engle , R. W. 1996 . Individual differences in working memory capacity: More evidence for a general capacity theory . Memory , 4 : 577 – 590 .
  • Conway , A. R. A. , Jarrold , C. , Kane , M. J. , Miyake , A. Towse , J. N. . 2007 . Variation in working memory . New York : Oxford University Press .
  • Conway , A. R. A. , Kane , M. J. , Bunting , M. F. , Hambrick , D. Z. , Wilhelm , O. and Engle , R. W. 2005 . Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user's guide . Psychonomic Bulletin & Review , 12 : 769 – 786 .
  • Cowan , N. , Elliott , E. M. , Saults , J. S. , Morey , C. C. , Mattox , S. Hismjatullina , A. 2005 . On the capacity of attention: Its estimation and its role in working memory and cognitive aptitudes . Cognitive Psychology , 51 : 42 – 100 .
  • Cowan , N. , Towse , J. N. , Hamilton , Z. , Saults , J. S. , Elliot , E. M. Lacey , J. F. 2003 . Children's working-memory processes: A response-timing analysis . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 132 : 113 – 132 .
  • Daneman , M. and Carpenter , P. A. 1980 . Individual differences in working memory and reading . Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 19 : 450 – 466 .
  • Daneman , M. and Tardif , T. 1987 . “ Working memory and reading skill reexamined ” . In Attention and performance XII , Edited by: Coltheart , M. Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc .
  • Ekstrom , R. B. , French , J. W. , Harman , H. H. and Dermen , D. 1976 . Manual for kit of factor-referenced cognitive tests , Princeton, NJ : Educational Testing Services .
  • Engle , R. W. , Cantor , J. and Carullo , J. J. 1992 . Individual differences in working memory and comprehension: A test of four hypotheses . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, Cognition , 18 : 972 – 992 .
  • Engle , R. W. and Kane , M. J. 2004 . “ Executive attention, working memory capacity, and a two-factor theory of cognitive control ” . In The psychology of learning and motivation , Edited by: Ross , B. Vol. 44 , 145 – 199 . New York : Elsevier .
  • Engle , R. W. , Tuholski , S. W. , Laughlin , J. E. and Conway , A. R. A. 1999 . Working memory, short-term memory and general fluid intelligence: A latent variable approach . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 128 : 309 – 331 .
  • Friedman , N. P. and Miyake , A. 2004 . The reading span test and its predictive power for reading comprehension ability . Journal of Memory and Language , 51 : 136 – 158 .
  • Gabrieli , J. D. E. , Singh , J. , Stebbins , G. T. and Goetz , C. G. 1996 . Reduced working memory span in Parkinson's disease: Evidence of the role of a frontostriatal system in working and strategic memory . Neuropsychology , 10 : 322 – 332 .
  • Hambrick , D. Z. and Oswald , F. L. 2005 . Does domain knowledge moderate involvement of working memory capacity in higher-level cognition? A test of three models . Journal of Memory and Language , 52 : 377 – 397 .
  • Hasher , L. , Lustig , C. and Zacks , R. T. 2007 . “ Inhibitory mechanisms and the control of attention ” . In Variation in working memory , Edited by: Conway , A. R. A , Jarrold , C. , Kane , M. J. , Miyake , A. and Towse , J. N. New York : Oxford University Press .
  • Hitch , G. J. and McAuley , E. 1991 . Working memory in children with specific arithmetical learning difficulties . British Journal of Psychology , 82 : 375 – 386 .
  • Hitch , G. J. , Towse , J. N. and Hutton , U. 2001 . What limits children's working memory span? Theoretical accounts and applications for scholastic development . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 130 : 184 – 198 .
  • Hu , L. and Bentler , P. M. 1999 . Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives . Structural Equation Modeling , 6 : 1 – 55 .
  • James , L. R. , Mulaik , S. A. and Brett , J. M. 2006 . A tale of two methods . Organizational Research Methods , 9 : 233 – 244 .
  • Jöreskog , K. and Sörbom , D. 2006 . Lisrel 8.80 , Lincolnwood, IL : Scientific Software International Inc .
  • Kane , M. J. , Hambrick , D. Z. , Tuholski , S. W. , Wilhelm , O. , Payne , T. W. and Engle , R. W. 2004 . The generality of working-memory capacity: A latent-variable approach to verbal and visuo-spatial memory span and reasoning . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 133 : 189 – 217 .
  • Kempler , D. , Almor , A. , Tyler , L. K. , Andersen , E. S. and MacDonald , M. C. 1998 . Sentence comprehension deficits in Alzheimer's disease: A comparison of off-line and on-line processing . Brain and Language , 64 : 297 – 316 .
  • Klein , K. and Boals , A. 2001 . The relationship of life event stress and working memory capacity . Applied Cognitive Psychology , 15 : 565 – 579 .
  • Klein , K. and Fiss , W. H. 1999 . The reliability and stability of the Turner and Engle working memory task . Behavioral Research Methods, Instruments, Computers , 31 : 429 – 432 .
  • Kline , R. B. 1998 . Principles and practice of structural equation modeling , New York : Guilford Press .
  • Lépine , R. , Barrouillet , P. and Camos , V. 2005 . What makes working memory spans so predictive of high-level cognition? . Psychonomic Bulletin & Review , 12 : 165 – 170 .
  • Maehara , Y. and Saito , S. 2007 . The relationship between processing and storage in working memory span: Not two sides of the same coin . Journal of Memory and Language , 56 : 212 – 228 .
  • Marshalek , B. , Lohman , D. F. and Snow , R. E. 1982 . The complexity continuum in the radix and hierarchical models of intelligence . Intelligence , 7 : 107 – 127 .
  • May , C. P. , Hasher , L. and Kane , M. J. 1999 . The role of interference in memory span . Memory & Cognition , 27 : 759 – 767 .
  • Miyake , A. Shah , P. . 1999 . Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control . New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • Oberauer , K. , Schulze , R. , Wilhlem , O. and Süß , H-M. 2005 . Working memory and intelligence – their correlation and their relation: Comment on Ackerman, Beier, and Boyle (2005) . Psychological Bulletin , 131 : 61 – 65 .
  • Oberauer , K. , Süß , H-M. , Wilhelm , O. and Wittmann , W. W. 2003 . The multiple faces of working memory – storage, processing, supervision, and coordination . Intelligence , 31 : 167 – 193 .
  • Pedhazur , E. J. 1997 . Multiple regression in behavioral research: Explanation and prediction , New York : Harcourt Brace College Publishers .
  • Raven , J. C. , Raven , J. E. and Court , J. H. 1998 . Progressive matrices , Oxford, , UK : Oxford Psychologists Press .
  • Rosen , V. M. , Bergeson , J. L. , Putnam , K. , Harwell , A. and Sunderland , T. 2002 . Working memory and apolipoprotein E: What's the connection? . Neuropsychologia , 40 : 2226 – 2233 .
  • Saito , S. and Miyake , A. 2004 . On the nature of forgetting and the processing–storage relationship in reading span performance . Journal of Memory and Language , 50 : 425 – 443 .
  • Salthouse , T. A. 1996 . The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition . Psychological Review , 103 : 403 – 428 .
  • Salthouse , T. A. and Babcock , R. L. 1991 . Decomposing adult age differences in working memory . Developmental Psychology , 27 : 763 – 777 .
  • Salthouse , T. A. , Pink , J. E. and Tucker-Drob , E. M. 2008 . Contextual analysis of fluid intelligence . Intelligence , 36 : 464 – 486 .
  • Schmader , T. and Johns , M. 2003 . Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 85 : 440 – 452 .
  • Schumacher , E. H. , Seymour , T. L. , Glass , J. M. , Fencsik , D. E. , Lauber , E. J. Kieras , D. E. 2001 . Virtually perfect time sharing in dual-task performance: Uncorking the central cognitive bottleneck . Psychological Science , 12 : 101 – 108 .
  • Schweizer , K. 2005 . An overview of research into the cognitive basis of intelligence . Journal of Individual Differences , 26 : 43 – 51 .
  • Shah , P. and Miyake , A. 1996 . The separability of working memory resources for spatial thinking and language processing: An individual differences approach . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 125 : 4 – 27 .
  • St. Clair-Thompson , H. L. 2007a . The effects of cognitive demand upon relationships between working memory and cognitive skills . The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 60 : 1378 – 1388 .
  • St. Clair-Thompson , H. L. 2007b . The influence of strategies upon relationships between working memory and cognitive skills . Memory , 15 : 353 – 365 .
  • Stevens , J. P. 2002 . Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences , Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc .
  • Stone , M. , Gabrieli , J. D. E. , Stebbins , G. T. and Sullivan , E. V. 1998 . Working and strategic memory deficits in schizophrenia . Neuropsychology , 12 : 278 – 288 .
  • Thurstone , T. G. 1962 . Primary mental abilities , Chicago : Science Research Associates .
  • Tombu , M. and Jolicæur , P. 2004 . Virtually no evidence for virtually perfect time sharing . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance , 30 : 795 – 810 .
  • Towse , J. N. and Hitch , G. J. 1995 . Is there a relationship between task demand and storage space in tests of working memory capacity? . The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 48 : 108 – 124 .
  • Towse , J. N. and Hitch , G. J. 2007 . “ Variation in working memory due to normal development ” . In Variation in working memory , Edited by: Conway , A. R. A , Jarrold , C. , Kane , M. J. , Miyake , A. and Towse , J. N. New York : Oxford University Press .
  • Towse , J. N. , Hitch , G. J. and Hutton , U. 1998 . A reevaluation of working memory capacity in children . Journal of Memory & Language , 39 : 195 – 217 .
  • Towse , J. N. , Hitch , G. J. and Hutton , U. 2000 . On the interpretation of working memory span in adults . Memory & Cognition , 28 : 341 – 348 .
  • Turley-Ames , K. J. and Whitfield , M. M. 2003 . Strategy training and working memory task performance . Journal of Memory and Language , 49 : 446 – 468 .
  • Turner , M. L. and Engle , R. W. 1989 . Is working memory capacity task dependent? . Journal of Memory and Language , 28 : 127 – 154 .
  • Unsworth , N. and Engle , R. W. 2006 . Simple and complex memory spans and their relation to fluid abilities: Evidence from list-length effects . Journal of Memory and Language , 54 : 68 – 80 .
  • Unsworth , N. and Engle , R. W. 2007a . On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex spans and their relation to higher-order abilities . Psychological Bulletin , 133 : 1038 – 1066 .
  • Unsworth , N. and Engle , R. W. 2007b . The nature of individual differences in working memory capacity: Active maintenance in primary memory and controlled search from secondary memory . Psychological Review , 114 : 104 – 132 .
  • Unsworth , N. , Heitz , R. P. and Engle , R. W. 2005a . “ Working memory capacity in hot and cold cognition ” . In Cognitive limitations in aging and psychopathology: Attention, working memory, and executive functions , Edited by: Engle , R. W. , Sedek , G. , Hecker , U. and McIntosh , D. N. 19 – 43 . New York : Oxford University Press .
  • Unsworth , N. , Heitz , R. P. , Schrock , J. C. and Engle , R. W. 2005b . An automated version of the operation span task . Behavior Research Methods , 37 : 498 – 505 .
  • Waters , G. S. and Caplan , D. 1996 . The measurement of verbal working memory capacity and its relation to reading comprehension . The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 49A : 51 – 79 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.