The effects of repeatedly recalling a traumatic event on eyewitness memory and suggestibility

References

• Anderson, M. C., & McCulloch, K. C. (1999). Integration as a general boundary condition on retrieval-induced forgetting. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25, 608–629. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.25.3.608
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnold, K. M., & McDermott, K. B. (2013). Free recall enhances subsequent learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20, 507–513. doi: 10.3758/s13423-012-0370-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayers, M. S., & Reder, L. M. (1998). A theoretical review of the misinformation effect: Predictions from an activation-based memory model. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 5, 1–21. doi: 10.3758/BF03209454
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bjorklund, D. F., Cassel, W. S., Bjorklund, B. R., Brown, R. D., Park, C. L., Ernst, K., & Owen, F. A. (2000). Social demand characteristics in children’s and adults’ eyewitness memory and suggestibility: The effect of different interviewers on free recall and recognition. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, 421–433. doi: 10.1002/1099-0720(200009)14:5<421::AID-ACP659>3.0.CO;2-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornstein, B. H., Liebel, L. M., & Scarberry, N. C. (1998). Repeated testing in eyewitness memory: A means to improve recall of a negative emotional event. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 12, 119–131. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199804)12:2<119::AID-ACP500>3.0.CO;2-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103, 670–686. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.103.4.670
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke, A., Heuer, F., & Reisberg, D. (1992). Remembering emotional events. Memory & Cognition, 20, 277–290. doi: 10.3758/BF03199665
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 354–380. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, J. C. K., & Langley, M. M. (2011). Paradoxical effects of testing: Retrieval enhances both accurate recall and suggestibility in eyewitnesses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 37, 248–255. doi: 10.1037/a0021204
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, J. C. K., & LaPaglia, J. A. (2011). The dark side of testing memory: Repeated retrieval can enhance eyewitness suggestibility. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 17, 418–432. doi: 10.1037/a0025147
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christianson, S. A. (1992). Emotional stress and eyewitness memory: A critical review. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 284–309. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.112.2.284
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christianson, S. A., & Loftus, E. F. (1991). Remembering emotional events: The fate of detailed information. Cognition & Emotion, 5, 81–108. doi: 10.1080/02699939108411027
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalton, A. L., & Daneman, M. (2006). Social suggestibility to central and peripheral misinformation. Memory, 14, 486–501. doi: 10.1080/09658210500495073
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319–345. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00123-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1986). Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 20–35. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.99.1.20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gabbert, F., Hope, L., Fisher, R. P., & Jamieson, K. (2012). Protecting against misleading post-event information with a self-administered interview. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26, 568–575. doi: 10.1002/acp.2828
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gabbert, F., Memon, A., Allan, K., & Wright, D. (2004). Say it to my face: Examining the effects of socially encountered misinformation. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 9, 215–227. doi: 10.1348/1355325041719428
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia-Bajos, E., Migueles, M., & Anderson, M. C. (2009). Script knowledge modulates retrieval-induced forgetting for eyewitness events. Memory, 17, 92–103. doi: 10.1080/09658210802572454
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon, L. T., Thomas, A. K., & Bulevich, J. B. (2015). Looking for answers in all the wrong places: How testing facilitates learning of misinformation. Journal of Memory and Language, 83, 140–151. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2015.03.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halligan, S. L., Michael, T., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder following assault: The role of cognitive processing, trauma memory, and appraisals. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 419–431. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.71.3.419
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmes, E. A., & Bourne, C. (2008). Inducing and modulating intrusive emotional memories: A review of the trauma film paradigm. Acta Psychologica, 127, 553–566. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2007.11.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huff, M. J., Weinsheimer, C. C., & Bodner, G. E. (2016). Reducing the misinformation effect through initial testing: Take two tests and recall me in the morning? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 30, 61–69. doi: 10.1002/acp.3167
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ibabe, I., & Sporer, S. L. (2004). How you ask is what you get: On the influence of question form on accuracy and confidence. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 711–726. doi: 10.1002/acp.1025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James, E. L., Lau-Zhu, A., Clark, I. A., Visser, R. M., Hagenaars, M. A., & Holmes, E. A. (2016). The trauma film paradigm as an experimental psychopathology model of psychological trauma: Intrusive memories and beyond. Clinical Psychology Review, 47, 106–142. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2016.04.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, M. K., Hashtroudi, S., & Lindsay, D. S. (1993). Source monitoring. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 3–28. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.114.1.3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, C., Harvey, A. G., & Brewin, C. R. (2007). The organisation and content of trauma memories in survivors of road traffic accidents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 151–162. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2006.02.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lane, S. M., Mather, M., Villa, D., & Morita, S. K. (2001). How events are reviewed matters: Effects of varied focus on eyewitness suggestibility. Memory & Cognition, 29, 940–947. doi: 10.3758/BF03195756
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindsay, S. (2008). Source monitoring. In H. L. Roediger III (Ed.), Cognitive psychology of memory. Vol. [2] of learning and memory: A comprehensive reference, 4 vols. (J. Byrne Ed.) (pp. 325–348). Oxford: Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Loftus, E. F. (2005). Planting misinformation in the human mind: A 30-year investigation of the malleability of memory. Learning & Memory, 12, 361–366. doi: 10.1101/lm.94705
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCloskey, M., & Zaragoza, M. (1985). Misleading postevent information and memory for events: Arguments and evidence against memory impairment hypotheses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 114, 1–16. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.114.1.1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monds, L. A., Paterson, H. M., Kemp, R. I., & Bryant, R. A. (2013). Do distress responses to a traumatic film predict susceptibility to the misinformation effect? Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 14, 562–575. doi: 10.1080/15299732.2013.804475
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Odinot, G., Memon, A., La Rooy, D., Millen, A., & Allen, P.. (2013). Are two interviews better than one? Eyewitness memory across repeated cognitive interviews. PLoS ONE, 8(10), e76305. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Odinot, G., & Wolters, G. (2006). Repeated recall, retention interval and the accuracy-confidence relation in eyewitness memory. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 973–985. doi: 10.1002/acp.1263
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Odinot, G., Wolters, G., & Lavender, T. (2009). Repeated partial eyewitness questioning causes confidence inflation but not retrieval-induced forgetting. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 23, 90–97. doi: 10.1002/acp.1443
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oeberst, A., & Blank, H. (2012). Undoing suggestive influence on memory: The reversibility of the eyewitness misinformation effect. Cognition, 125, 141–159. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2012.07.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paterson, H. M., & Kemp, R. I. (2006). Comparing methods of encountering post-event information: The power of co-witness suggestion. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 1083–1099. doi: 10.1002/acp.1261
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paz-Alonso, P. M., & Goodman, G. S. (2008). Trauma and memory: Effects of post-event misinformation, retrieval order, and retention interval. Memory, 16, 58–75. doi: 10.1080/09658210701363146
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paz-Alonso, P. M., Goodman, G. S., & Ibabe, I. (2013). Adult eyewitness memory and compliance: Effects of post-event misinformation on memory for a negative event. Behavioural Sciences and the Law, 31, 541–558. doi: 10.1002/bsl.2081
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roediger III, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). The power of testing memory: Basic research and implications for educational practice. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 181–210. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saunders, J., & MacLeod, M. D. (2002). New evidence on the suggestibility of memory: The role of retrieval-induced forgetting in misinformation effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8, 127–142. doi: 10.1037/1076-898X.8.2.127
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scrivner, E., & Safer, M. A. (1988). Eyewitnesses show hypermnesia for details about a violent event. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 371–377. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.73.3.371
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Small, L., Kenny, L., & Bryant, R. A. (2011). The cost in remembering of ruminating on negative memories. Emotion, 11, 1434–1438. doi: 10.1037/a0026436
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sotgiu, I., & Mormont, C. (2008). Similarities and differences between traumatic and emotional memories: Review and directions for future research. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 142, 449–470. doi: 10.3200/JRLP.142.5.449-470
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spielberger, C. D. (1984). State-trait anxiety inventory: A comprehensive bibliography. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
   Google Scholar
• Strange, D., & Takarangi, M. K. T. (2012). False memories for missing aspects of traumatic events. Acta Psychologica, 141, 322–326. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.08.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strange, D., & Takarangi, M. K. T. (2015). Investigating the variability of memory distortion for an analogue trauma. Memory, 23, 991–1000. doi: 10.1080/09658211.2014.945461
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Kolk, B. A., & Fisler, R. (1995). Dissociation and the fragmentary nature of traumatic memories: Overview and exploratory study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 505–525. doi: 10.1002/jts.2490080402
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wessel, I., van der Kooy, P., & Merckelbach, H. (2000). Differential recall of central and peripheral details of emotional slides is not a stable phenomenon. Memory, 8, 95–109. doi: 10.1080/096582100387641
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilford, M. M., Chan, J. C. K., & Tuhn, S. J. (2014). Retrieval enhances eyewitness suggestibility to misinformation in free and cued recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 20, 81–93. doi: 10.1037/xap0000001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuille, J. C., & Cutshall, J. L. (1986). A case study of eyewitness memory of a crime. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 291–301. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.71.2.291
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaragoza, M. S., Belli, R. F., & Payment, K. E. (2006). Misinformation effects and the suggestibility of eyewitness memory. In M. Garry & H. Hayne (Eds.), Do justice and let the sky fall: Elizabeth F. Loftus and her contributions to science, law and academic freedom (pp. 35–63). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar