Tonic immobility (freezing) during sexual and physical assaults produces stronger memory effects than other characteristics of the assaults

References

• Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Garbin, M. G. (1988). Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review, 8(1), 77–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7358(88)90050-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D. C. (2006). The centrality of event scale: A measure of integrating a trauma into one's identity and its relation to post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(2), 219–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.01.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blevins, C. A., Weathers, F. W., Davis, M. T., Witte, T. K., & Domino, J. L. (2015). The posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(6), 489–498. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bovin, M. J., Dodson, T. S., Smith, B. N., Gregor, K., Marx, B. P., & Pineles, S. L. (2014). Does guilt mediate the association between tonic immobility and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in female trauma survivors? Journal of Traumatic Stress, 27(6), 721–724. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21963
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bovin, M. J., Jager-Hyman, S., Gold, S. D., Marx, B. P., & Sloan, D. M. (2008). Tonic immobility mediates the influence of peritraumatic fear and perceived inescapability on posttraumatic stress symptom severity among sexual assault survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21(4), 402–409. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20354
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgess, A. W., & Holmstrom, L. L. (1976). Coping behavior of the rape victim. American Journal of Psychiatry, 133(4), 413–418. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.133.4.413
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, R., Goodman-Williams, R., & Javorka, M. (2019). A trauma-informed approach to sexual violence research ethics and open science. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(23-24), 4765–4793. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519871530
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Covers, M. L. V., Huntjens, R. J. C., Hagenaars, M. A., Hehenkamp, L. M. J., & Bicanic, I. A. E. (2022). The Tonic Immobility Scale in adolescent and young adult rape victims: Support for three-factor model. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 14(5). https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001000.
   Google Scholar
• Decker, J. F., & Baroni, P. G. (2011). No” still means “yes": The failure of the “non-consent” reform movement in American rape and sexual assault law. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 101(4), 1081–1169.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Heer, B. A., & Jones, L. C. (2017). Investigating the self-protective potential of immobility in victims of rape. Violence and Victims, 32(2), 210–229. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-15-00099
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Kleine, R. A., Hagenaars, M. A., & van Minnen, A. (2018). Tonic immobility during re-experiencing the traumatic event in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Research, 270, 1105–1109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.06.051
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dew, I. T. Z., & Cabeza, R. (2011). The porous boundaries between explicit and implicit memory: Behavioral and neural evidence. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1224(1), 174–190. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05946.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiszman, A., Mendlowicz, M. V., Marques-Portella, C., Volchan, E., Coutinho, E. S., Souza, W. F., Rocha, V., Lima, A., Salomão, F. P., Mari, J. J., & Figueira, I. (2008). Peritraumatic tonic immobility predicts a poor response to pharmacological treatment in victims of urban violence with PTSD. Journal of Affective Disorders, 107(1-3), 193–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2007.07.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa, E. B., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Tolin, D. F., & Orsillo, S. M. (1999). The posttraumatic cognitions inventory (PTCI): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 11(3), 303–314. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.11.3.303
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fusé, T., Forsyth, J. P., Marx, B. P., Gallup, G. G., & Weaver, S. (2007). Factor structure of the Tonic Immobility Scale in female sexual assault survivors: An exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21(3), 265–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.05.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galliano, G., Noble, L. M., Travis, L. A., & Puechl, C. (1993). Victim reactions during rape/sexual assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8(1), 109–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626093008001008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallup, G. G., Rager, J., & R, D. (1996). Tonic immobility as a model of extreme stress of behavioral inhibition: Issues of methodology and measurement. In P. R. Sanberg, K. P. Ossenkopp, & M. Kavaliers (Eds.), Contemporary neuroscience. Motor activity and movement disorders: Research issues and applications (pp. 57–80). Humana Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gozzi, A., Jain, A., Giovanelli, A., Bertollini, C., Crestan, V., Schwarz, A. J., Tsetsenis, T., Ragozzino, D., Gross, C. T., & Bifone, A. (2010). A neural switch for active and passive fear. Neuron, 67(4), 656–666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2010.07.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagenaars, M. A. (2016). Tonic immobility and PTSD in a large community sample. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 7(2), 246–260. https://doi.org/10.5127/jep.051915
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagenaars, M. A., & Hagenaars, J. A. P. (2020). Tonic immobility predicts poorer recovery from posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 264, 365–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.11.027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heidt, J. M., Marx, B. P., & Forsyth, J. P. (2005). Tonic immobility and childhood sexual abuse: A preliminary report evaluating the sequela of rape-induced paralysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(9), 1157–1171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.08.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holland, K. J., Cortina, L. M., & Freyd, J. J. (2018). Compelled disclosure of college sexual assault. American Psychologist, 73(3), 256. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000186
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma. Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kalaf, J., Coutinho, E. S. F., Vilete, L. M. P., Luz, M. P., Berger, W., Mendlowicz, M., Volchan, E., Andreoli, S. B., Quintana, M. I., de, J., Mari, J., & Figueira, I. (2017). Sexual trauma is more strongly associated with tonic immobility than other types of trauma – A population based study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 215, 71–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.03.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keay, K. A., & Bandler, R. (2001). Parallel circuits mediating distinct emotional coping reactions to different types of stress. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 25(7-8), 669–678. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-7634(01)00049-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koss, M. P., Abbey, A., Campbell, R., Cook, S., Norris, J., Testa, M., Ullman, S., West, C., & White, J. (2007). Revising the SES: A collaborative process to improve assessment of sexual aggression and victimization. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(4), 357–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00385.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kozlowska, K., Walker, P., McLean, L., & Carrive, P. (2015). Fear and the defense cascade. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 23(4), 263–287. https://doi.org/10.1097/HRP.0000000000000065
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lima, A. A., Fiszman, A., Marques-portella, C., Mendlowicz, M. V., Coutinho, E. S. F., Maia, D. C. B., Berger, W., Rocha-rego, V., Volchan, E., Mari, J. J., & Figueira, I. (2010). The impact of tonic immobility reaction on the prognosis of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 44(4), 224–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.08.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marx, B. P., Forsyth, J. P., Gallup, G. G., Fusé, T., & Lexington, J. M. (2008). Tonic immobility as an evolved predator defense: Implications for sexual assault survivors. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 15(1), 74–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.2008.00112.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maser, J. D., & Gallup, G. G.,. J. (1977). Tonic immobility and related phenomena: A partially annotated, tricentennial bibliography, 1636–1976. The Psychological Record, 27(S1), 177–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03394440
   Google Scholar
• Matos, M., & Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2010). Shame as a traumatic memory. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 17, 299–312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Möller, A., Söndergaard, H. P., & Helström, L. (2017). Tonic immobility during sexual assault - a common reaction predicting post-traumatic stress disorder and severe depression. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 96(8), 932–938. https://doi.org/10.1111/aogs.13174
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moor, A., & Farchi, M. (2011). Is rape-related self blame distinct from other post traumatic attributions of blame? A comparison of severity and implications for treatment. Women & Therapy, 34(4), 447–460. https://doi.org/10.1080/02703149.2011.591671
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reichenheim, M., Souza, W., Silva, E., Coutinho, F., Figueira, I., Mello, D., Bressan, R. A., Mari, J. D. J., Feijo, M., Ine, M., & Andreoli, S. B. (2014). Structural validity of the tonic immobility scale in a population exposed to trauma: Evidence from two large Brazilian samples. PLOS One, 9(4), e94367–7. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0094367
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roelofs, K. (2017). Freeze for action: Neurobiological mechanisms in animal and human freezing. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 372(1718), 20160206. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0206
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin, D. C. (2022). A conceptual space for episodic and semantic memory. Memory & Cognition, 50(3), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-021-01148-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin, D. C., Berntsen, D., & Bohni, M. K. (2008). A memory-based model of posttraumatic stress disorder: Evaluating basic assumptions underlying the PTSD diagnosis. Psychological Review, 115(4), 985–1011. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013397
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin, D. C., & Feeling, N. (2013). Measuring the severity of negative and traumatic events. Clinical Psychological Science, 1(4), 375–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702613483112
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rubin, D. C., Schrauf, R. W., & Greenberg, D. L. (2003). Belief and recollection of autobiographical memories. Memory & Cognition, 31(6), 887–901. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196443
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin, D. C., & Wenzel, A. E. (1996). One hundred years of forgetting: A quantitative description of retention. Psychological Review, 103(4), 734–760. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.103.4.734
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sargeant, A. B., & Eberhardt, L. E. (1975). Death feigning by ducks in response to predation by red foxes (Vulpes fulva). American Midland Naturalist, 94(1), 108–119. https://doi.org/10.2307/2424542
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B. W., & Löwe, B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(10), 1092–1097. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Squire, L. R. (1987). Memory and Brain. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Suarez, S. D., & Gallup, G. G. (1979). Tonic immobility as a response to rape in humans a theoretical note. The Psychological Record, 29(3), 315–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03394619
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TeBockhorst, S. F., O’Halloran, M. S., & Nyline, B. N. (2015). Tonic immobility Among survivors of sexual assault. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 7(2), 171–178. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037953
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson, R. K. R., Foltin, R. J., Boylan, R. J., Sweet, A., Graves, C. A., & Lowitz, C. E. (1981). Tonic immobility in Japanese quail can reduce the probability of sustained attack by cats. Animal Learning & Behavior, 9(1), 145–149. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03212037
   Google Scholar
• Van Buren, B. R., & Weierich, M. R. (2015). Peritraumatic tonic immobility and trauma-related symptoms in adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse: The role of posttrauma cognitions. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 24(8), 959–974. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2015.1082003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volchan, E., Rocha-Rego, V., Bastos, A. F., Oliveira, J. M., Franklin, C., Gleiser, S., Berger, W., Souza, G., Oliveira, L., David, I. A., Erthal, F. S., Pereira, M. G., & Figueira, I. (2017). Immobility reactions under threat: A contribution to human defensive cascade and PTSD. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 76(Pt A), 29–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.01.025
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Walker, P., & Carrive, P. (2003). Role of ventrolateral periaqueductal gray neurons in the behavioral and cardiovascular responses to contextual conditioned fear and poststress recovery. Neuroscience, 116(3), 897–912. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4522(02)00744-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Keane, T. M., Palmieri, P. A., Marx, B. P., & Schnurr, P. P. (2013). The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). http://www.ptsd.va.gov.
   Google Scholar