References

• Al-Ali , N. , Black , R. and Koser , K. 2001 . The limits to ‘transnationalism’: Bosnian and Eritrean refugees in Europe as emerging transnational communities . Ethnic and Racial Studies , 24 ( 4 ) : 578 – 600 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrzejewski , B.W. and Lewis , I.M. 1964 . Somali poetry: An introduction , Oxford : Clarendon Press .
   Google Scholar
• Anthias , F. 1998 . Evaluating ‘diaspora’: Beyond ethnicity? . Sociology , 32 ( 3 ) : 557 – 80 .
   Google Scholar
• Anthias , F. and Yuval-Davis , N. 1992 . Racialized boundaries: Race, nation, gender, colour and class and the anti-racist struggle , London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Bailey , A.J. , Wright , R.A. , Mountz , A. and Miyares , I.M. 2002 . (Re)producing Salvadoran transnational geographies . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 92 ( 1 ) : 125 – 44 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbour , R. and Kitzinger , J. , eds. 1999 . Developing focus group research: Politics, theory and practice , London : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Basu , A. 2000 . Globalization of the local/localization of the global: Mapping transnational women's movements . Meridians , 1 ( 1 ) : 68 – 84 .
   Google Scholar
• Berns-McGown , R. 1999 . Muslims in the diaspora: The Somali communities of London and Toronto , Toronto : University of Toronto Press .
   Google Scholar
• Besteman , C. 1996 . Representing violence and ‘othering’ Somalia . Cultural Anthropology , 11 ( 1 ) : 120 – 33 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Besteman , C. and Cassanelli , L. , eds. 2000 . The struggle for land in Southern Somalia: The war behind the war , 2nd ed , London : Haan .
   Google Scholar
• Bhabha , H.K. 1995 . The location of culture , London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Binder , S. and Tošić , J. 2005 . Refugees as a particular form of transnational migrations and social transformations: Socioanthropological and gender aspects . Current Sociology , 53 ( 4 ) : 607 – 24 .
   Google Scholar
• Boyd , M. 1999 . Gender, refugee status and permanent resettlement . Gender Issues , 17 ( 1 ) : 5 – 25 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boyle , P. and Halfacree , K. , eds. 1999 . Migration and gender in the developed world , London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Brah , A. 1996 . Cartographies of diaspora: Contesting identities , London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Breton , R. 1992 . “ Collective dimensions of the cultural transformation of ethnic communities and the larger society ” . In Migration and the transformation of cultures , Edited by: Burnet , J. , Juteau , D. , Padolsky , E. , Rasporich , A. and Sirois , A. 3 – 21 . Toronto : Multicultural History Society of Ontario .
   Google Scholar
• Butler , J. 1990 . Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity , New York : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Camino , L.A. and Krulfeld , R.M. , eds. 1994 . Reconstructing lives, recapturing meaning: Refugee identity, gender, and culture change , London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Cassanelli, L. 1995. Victims and vulnerable groups in southern Somalia. Report for the Documentation, Information and Research Branch of the Immigration and Refugee Board, Ottawa, Canada, Ottawa: DIRB
   Google Scholar
• Cassanelli , L. 2001 . “ Rethinking history and identity in the Somali diaspora ” . In Variations on the theme of Somaliness , Edited by: Lilius , M.S. 272 – 80 . Turku, Finland : Centre for Continuing Education, Åbo Akademi University .
   Google Scholar
• Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). July 2008. The world factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html#People (accessed March 13, 2009)
   Google Scholar
• Clifford , J. 1994 . Diasporas . Cultural Anthropology , 9 ( 3 ) : 302 – 38 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , R. 1999 . Global diasporas: An introduction , London : UCL Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cole , I. and Robinson , D. 2003 . Somali housing experiences in England , Sheffield : Centre for Regional Economic and Social Research, Sheffield Hallam University .
   Google Scholar
• Conway , J. 2008 . Geographies of transnational feminisms: The politics of place and scale in the world march of women . Social Politics , 15 ( 2 ) : 207 – 31 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crosby , D.B. 2006 . Resettled Somali women in Georgia and changing gender roles . Bildhaan: An International Journal of Somali Studies , 6 http://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article = 1057andcontext = bildhaan (accessed July 1, 2009).
   Google Scholar
• Danso , R. 2001 . From ‘there’ to ‘here’: An investigation of the initial settlement experiences of Ethiopian and Somali refugees in Toronto . GeoJournal , 55 : 3 – 14 .
   Google Scholar
• Desai , M. 2005 . Transnationalism: The face of feminist politics post-Beijing . International Social Science Journal , 184 : 319 – 30 .
   Google Scholar
• El Guindi , F. 1999 . Veil: Modesty, privacy and resistance , Oxford : Berg .
   Google Scholar
• Faist , T. 2000 . The volume and dynamics of international migration and transnational social spaces , Oxford : Clarendon Press .
   Google Scholar
• Friedman , J. 1990 . “ Being in the world: globalization and localisation ” . In Global culture: Nationalism, globalization and modernity , Edited by: Featherstone , M. 311 – 28 . London : Sage Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Giles , W. , Moussa , H. and van Esterik , P. , eds. 1996 . Development and diaspora: Gender and the refugee experience , Toronto : Artemis Enterprises .
   Google Scholar
• Gilroy , P. 1993 . The black Atlantic: Modernity and double consciousness , London : Verso .
   Google Scholar
• Gmelch , G. 1992 . “ Reflections on oral history and migration ” . In Double passage: The lives of Caribbean migrants abroad and back home , Edited by: Gmelch , G. 311 – 33 . Michigan : University of Michigan Press .
   Google Scholar
• Goldring , L. and Krishnamurti , S. 2007 . “ Introduction: Contextualizing transnationalism in Canada ” . In Organizing the transnational: Labour, politics, and social change , Edited by: Goldring , L. and Krishnamurti , S. 1 – 23 . Vancouver : University of British Columbia Press .
   Google Scholar
• Griffiths , D.J. 2002 . Somali and Kurdish refugees in London: New identities in the diaspora , Aldershot : Ashgate .
   Google Scholar
• Hall , S. 1990 . “ Cultural identity and diaspora ” . In Identity, community, culture, difference , Edited by: Rutherford , J. 222 – 37 . London : Lawrence and Wishart .
   Google Scholar
• Harris , H. 2004 . The Somali community in the UK: What we know and how we know it , London : ICAR, International Policy Institute, King's College London .
   Google Scholar
• Holman , C. and Holman , N. 2003 . First steps in a new country: Baseline indicators for the Somali community in London borough of Hackney , London : Sahil Housing Association .
   Google Scholar
• Home Office Statistical Bulletin. 2004. Asylum statistics United Kingdom 2003, 2nd ed., August 24, 2004
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch (HRW). 1993. Seeking refuge, finding terror: The widespread rape of Somali women refugees in north eastern Kenya. Report: Human Rights Watch
   Google Scholar
• Hyndman , J. and de Alwis , M. 2003 . Beyond gender: Toward a feminist analysis of conflict in Sri Lanka . Women's Studies Quarterly , 31 ( 3–4 ) : 212 – 26 .
   Google Scholar
• de Alwis , M. 2004 . Bodies, shrines, and roads: Violence, (im)mobility and displacement in Sri Lanka . Gender, Place and Culture , 11 ( 4 ) : 535 – 56 .
   Google Scholar
• Ibrahim , R.M. 2004 . “ Women's role in the pastoral economy ” . In Somalia, the untold story: The war through the eyes of Somali women , Edited by: Gardner , J. and el Bushra , J. 24 – 41 . London : Pluto Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kapteijns, L. 1993. Women and the crisis of communal identity: The cultural construction of gender in Somali history., African Studies Centre Working Paper, no. 173
   Google Scholar
• Kivisto , P. 2001 . Theorizing transnational immigration: A critical review of current efforts . Ethnic and Racial Studies , 24 ( 4 ) : 549 – 77 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kusow, A.M. 2001. Stigma and social identities: The process of identity work among Somali immigrants in Canada. In Variations on the theme of Somaliness, ed. S. Lilius. Proceedings of the EASS/SSIA International Congress of Somali Studies, Turku, Finland, August 6–9, 1998
   Google Scholar
• Levitt , P. , DeWind , J. and Vertovec , S. 2003 . International perspectives on transnational migration: An introduction . International Migration Review , 37 ( 3 ) : 565 – 75 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis , I.M. 1965 . A modern history of Somalia: Nation and state in the Horn of Africa , London : Weidenfeld and Nicholson .
   Google Scholar
• Lewis , I.M. 1994 . Blood and bone: The call of kinship in Somali society , Lawrenceville, NJ : The Red Sea Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lilius , M.S. , ed. 2001 . Variations on the theme of Somaliness , Turku, Finland : Centre for Continuing Education, Åbo Akademi University .
   Google Scholar
• Magocsi , P.E. , ed. 1999 . “ Encyclopedia of Canada's peoples ” . Toronto : University of Toronto Press, for The Multicultural History Society of Ontario .
   Google Scholar
• Mahadalla , H. 1998 . The Somali conflict: Clan rivalry or the cabals of a few? . Horn of Africa XVI , XVI ( 1–4 ) : 163 – 70 .
   Google Scholar
• Massey , D. 1994 . Space, place and gender , Cambridge : Polity Press .
   Google Scholar
• Menkhaus , K. 2003 . Protracted state collapse in Somalia: A rediagnosis . Review of African Political Economy 30, no. , 30 ( 97 ) : 1 – 24 .
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell , K. 1997 . Different diasporas and the hype of hybridity . Environment and Planning D: Society and Space , 15 : 533 – 53 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murdie, R.A. 2004. ‘House as home’ as a measure of immigrant integration: Evidence from the housing experiences of new Canadians in greater Toronto. Study, Seventh National Metropolis Conference, Montreal
   Google Scholar
• Nolin , C.L. 2001 . Transnational ruptures and sutures: Questions of identity and social relations among Guatemalans in Canada . Geojournal , 55 : 59 – 67 .
   Google Scholar
• Odeh , L.A. 1993 . Post-colonial feminism and the veil: Thinking the difference . Feminist Review , 43 : 27 – 37 .
   Google Scholar
• Office for National Statistics (ONS). 2004. 2001 Census data, table T07 theme table on residents of England and Wales by selected country of birth. Commissioned Tables, http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk (accessed March 2005)
   Google Scholar
• Portes , A. 1999 . Conclusion: Toward a new world – the origins and effects of transnational activities . Ethnic and Racial Studies , 22 ( 2 ) : 463 – 77 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Portes , A. , Guarnizo , L.E. and Landolt , P. 1999 . The study of transnationalism: Pitfalls and promise of an emergent research field . Ethnic and Racial Studies , 22 ( 2 ) : 217 – 37 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pratt, G. 2000. Studying immigrants in focus groups, Vancouver Centre of Excellence, Research on Immigration and Integration in the Metropolis (RIIM), Working Paper Series, December
   Google Scholar
• Refugee Council . 1994 . Somali refugees in the UK/Somalia. Refugee Council Factsfile, no. 12 , London : The Refugee Council .
   Google Scholar
• Sherrell , K. and Hyndman , J. 2006 . Global minds, local bodies: Kosovar transnational connections beyond British Columbia . Refuge , 23 ( 1 ) : 76 – 96 .
   Google Scholar
• Solomos , J. and Back , L. 1995 . Race politics and social change , New York : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Canada. 2004. The adequacy, suitability and affordability of Canadian housing. Socio-economic Series 04-007, 2001 Census Housing Series: Issue 3, April
   Google Scholar
• Thompson , P. 1978 . The voice of the past , Oxford : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Thomson , A.S. 1999 . Moving stories: Oral history and migration studies . Oral History , 27 ( 1 ) : 24 – 37 .
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2009. Somalia's missing millions: The Somali diaspora and its role in development. UNDP Report, March
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Security Council (UNSC). 2009. Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Somalia, March, http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N09/252/48/PDF/N0925248.pdf?OpenElement (accessed March 13, 2009)
   Google Scholar
• Vertovec , S. 1999 . Conceiving and researching transnationalism . Ethnic and Racial Studies , 22 ( 2 ) : 447 – 62 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vertovec , S. 2003 . Migration and other modes of transnationalism: Towards conceptual cross-fertilization . IMR , 37 ( 3 ) : 641 – 5 .
   Google Scholar
• Wahlbeck , O. 2002 . The concept of diaspora as an analytical tool in the study of refugee communities . Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies , 28 : 221 – 38 .
   Google Scholar
• Warriner , D.S. 2007 . Language learning and the politics of belonging: Sudanese women. Refugees becoming and being ‘American’ . Anthropology and Education Quarterly , 38 ( 4 ) : 343 – 59 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werbner , P. 2000 . Introduction: The materiality of diaspora – between aesthetics and real Politics . Diaspora , 9 ( 1 ) : 5 – 20 .
   Google Scholar
• Wilkinson , S. 1999 . “ How useful are focus groups in feminist research? ” . In Developing focus group research: Politics, theory and practice , Edited by: Barbour , R. and Kitzinger , J. 64 – 78 . London : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Young , R.J.C. 1995 . “ Hybridity and diaspora ” . In Colonial desire: Hybridity in theory, culture and race , Edited by: Young , R. 1 – 26 . London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar