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Original Articles

Ethnicity and Equality in Post-communist Economic Transition: Evidence from Russia's Republics

Pages 673-699 | Published online: 01 Jul 2010

References

  • Hechter , Michael . 1978 . 'Group Formation and the Cultural Division of Labor' . American Journal of Sociology , 84 ( 2 ) : 293 – 318 .
  • Gorenburg , Dmitry . 1999 . 'Regional Separatism in Russia: Ethnic Mobilisation or Power Grab?' . Europe-Asia Studies , 51 ( 2 ) : 245 – 274 .
  • Brubaker , Rogers . 1996 . Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
  • Esman , MiIton . 1987 . 'Ethnic Politics and Economic Power' . Comparative Politics , 19 : 295 – 318 .
  • Ibid.
  • Shapiro , Daniel and Stelcner , Morton . 1997 . 'Language and Earnings in Quebec: Trends over Twenty Years, 1970-1990' . Canadian Public Policy-Analyse de Politiques , 23 ( 2 ) : 115 – 140 .
  • Esman, 'Ethnic Polities'.
  • Lee , Goh Ban . 1991 . “ 'Restructuring Society in Malaysia: Its Impact on Employment and Investment' ” . In Economic Dimensions of Ethnic Conflict , Edited by: Samarasinghe , S.W. R. de A. and Coughlan , Reed . 74 – 95 . London : Pinter .
  • Hirschman , Charles . 1979 . 'Political Independence and Educational Opportunity in Peninsular Malaysia' . Sociology of Education , 52 : 67 – 83 .
  • Pong , Su-ling . 1993 . 'Preferential Policies and Secondary School Attainment in Peninsular Malaysia' . Sociology of Education , 66 : 245 – 261 .
  • Koroteeva , Viktoriya . 2000 . Ekonomicheskie interesy i natsionalizm , 151 Moscow : Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi gumanitarnyi universitet .
  • Balzer , Marjorie Mandelstam , ed. 1995 . “ 'The Problems of Sovereignty and Interethnic Relations in the Republic of Tatarstan' ” . In Culture Incarnate: Native Anthropology from Russia , 113 – 122 . Armonk , NY : M. E. Sharpe . Roza Musina provides additional data in
  • Ignat'eva , V. B. 1993 . “ 'Promyshlennoe osvoenie Yakutii i ego vliyanie na sotsial'noe razvitie korennykh narodov' ” . In Natsionol' naya politika v regione. Po materialam Respubliki Sakha (Yakutiya) , 46 Yakutsk : Yakutskii nauchnyi tsentr Sibirskogo otdeleniya RAN .
  • Ignat'eva , V. B. 1994 . Natsional'nyi sostav naseleniya Yakutii , 99 Yakutsk : Yakutskii nauchnyi tsentr Sibirskogo otdeleniya RAN . Ignat'eva's data are calculated in the same way as those by Dzadziev & Gostieva
  • Rogowski , Ronald . 1985 . “ 'Causes and Varieties of Nationalism: A Rationalist Account' ” . In New Nationalisms of the Developed West: Toward Explanation , Edited by: Tiryakian , Edward and Rogowski , Ronald . 87 – 108 . Boston : Alien and Unwin . Michael Hechter, 'Nationalism as Group Solidarity', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 10,4, October 1987, pp. 415-426; see also
  • McRoberts , Hugh . 1985 . “ 'Language and Mobility: A Comparison of Three Groups' ” . In Ascription and Achievement: Studies in Mobility and Status Attainment in Canada , Edited by: Boyd , Monica . 335 – 356 . Ottawa : Carleton University Press .
  • Taucar , Christopher . 2000 . Canadian Federalism and Quebec Sovereignty , New York : Peter Lang .
  • Wanner , Richard . 1999 . 'Expansion and Ascription: Trends in Educational Opportunity in Canada, 1920-1994' . The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology , 36 : 409 – 442 .
  • The strategy in outlined in Perspektivy razvitiya regionov Rossii: Formula Tatarstana (Kazan', Tsentr ekonomicheskikh i sotsial'nykh issledovanii pri Kabinete Ministrov RT, 2001).
  • 1992 . Nezavisimaya gazeta , 8 July : 3 North Ossetia has also laced substantial problems with alcohol smuggling from the South. (Raw alcohol is trucked in for processing and bottling in North Ossetia.) One estimate suggested that bootleggers smuggled in some $600 million in raw alcohol during 1996. See Obshchaya gazeta, 31 July-6 August 1997, p. 2
  • Note, though, that the pattern of political indigenisation has varied across the republics as a whole. In some, the indigenous nationality actually lost ground in legislative elections. See Robert Kaiser, 'Political Indigenization and Homeland-Making in Russia's Republics', Report to the National Council for Eurasian and East European Research, March 2000.
  • 1999 . 'Ossetiya-Land of Uncertain Frontiers and Manipulative Elites' . Central Asian Survey , 18 ( 4 ) : 501 – 534 . Julian Birch notes, for example, that North Ossetia has relied heavily on aid from Moscow to cope with refugees from the South, and on political support from Moscow in the ongoing battle with Ingushetia; see his
  • Milanovic , Branko . 1999 . Income, Inequality and Poverty During the Transition from Planned to Market Economy , 197 Washington, DC : World Bank .
  • 2000 . European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Transition Report 2000: Employment, Skills and Transition , 65 London : EBRD .
  • Ibid
  • 1998 . Regiony Rossii: Statisticheskii sbornik 1998 , vol. 2 , 89 Moscow : Goskomstat . Reported unemployment rates are from
  • 1999 . Regiony Rossii: Statisticheskii sbornik 1999 , vol. 2 , 97 Moscow : Goskomstat . These volumes give slightly different figures for the same year, but the differences are extremely small
  • Milanovic . Income, Inequality end Poverty 41
  • Regiony Rossii: Statisticheskii sbornik 1999, p. 134. The EBRD reports a poverty level for 2000 of 35% (Transition Report 2000, p. 204).
  • Braithwaite , Jeanine D. 1997 . "The Old and New Poor in Russia' ” . In Poverty in Russia: Public Policy and Private Responses , Edited by: Klugman , Jeni . 29 – 64 . Washington, DC : World Bank .
  • Lokshin , Michael and Popkin , Barry . 1999 . "The Emerging Underclass in the Russian Federation: Income Dynamics, 1992-1996' . Economic Development and Cultural Change , 47 : 803 – 829 .
  • The 12 republics with poverty levels of 30% or more in 1997 (and the total percentage of the population below the poverty line) included Ingushetia (76.9), Tyva (62.4), Dagestan (53.9), Mari-El (52.1), Kalmykia (46), Buryatia (44.3), Karachaevo-Cherkess k (41), Adygeia (40.2), KabardinoBalkaria (39.8), Altai republic (39.2), Mordovia (38.6) and North Ossetia (33.9). Seven of these are in the North Caucasus. (No data are available for Chechnya.) The nine Russian regions with poverty levels of 30% were Chita ablast' (61.2), Altai krai (45.7), Kurgan ablast' (42.6), Novosibirsk ablast' (39.3), Penza ablast' (38), Stavropol' krai (34.8), Sakhalin ablast' (32.8), Saratov ablast' (32.1) and Kirov ablast' (30.8) (see Regiony Rossii. Statisticheskii sbornik, 1999, pp. 134-135).
  • A. B. Dzadziev, 'Otraslevoi sostav zanyatogo naseleniya Severnoi Osetii (1959-1989 gg.)', in Voprosy sotsiologii Severnoi Osetii (Vladikavkaz, 1993), p. 45; and L. K. Gostieva & A. B. Dzadziev, Ocherki ob etnopolitichesko i situatsii', in Severnaya Osetiya: etnopoliticheskie protsessy 19901994. Ocherki. Dokumenty. Khronika. Tom I (Moscow, Institut etnologii i antropologii, 1995), pp. 14-76. Dzadziev & Gostieva calculated representation across economic branches from the 1989 census data, by taking the proportion of a nationality group employed in a given branch and dividing it by the proportion of all employed in that branch within the republic.
  • A statistical handbook for Sakha lists fewer employees, but it appears to include only federal and republic-level government workers and to exclude local government personnel. Respublika Sakha (Yakutiya) za gody suvereniteta (1990-2000 gg.) (Yakutsk, Goskomstat RS, 2000), p. 10.
  • Rossiiskii statisticheskii ezhegodnik, 2000, pp. 19-21, 26-27.
  • Spiridonova reports that the share of students of Sakha nationality in higher education was actually lower by the end of the 1990s than it had been in 1989, due to the opening of filialy in predominantly Russian areas such as Mirnyi and Neryungri (see 'Aktual'nye problemy', p. 204).
  • Balzer & Vinokurova, 'Nationalism, Interethnic Relations and Federalism', pp. 108-111, for an account of such incidents.
  • Koioteeva, Ekonomicheskie interesy, pp. 165-167.
  • Mikk Titma, Nancy Brandon Tuma & Brian D. Silver, 'Winners and Losers in the Postcommunist Transition: New Evidence from Estonia', Post-Soviet Affairs, 12,2,1998, pp. 114-136. Aadne Aasland & Tone Flotten found similar evidence of economic differentiation in their surveys of Estonia and Latvia. Slavs were more likely to be unemployed or out of the labour force (net of age, gender, education and rural residence); see their 'Ethnicity and Social Exclusion in Estonia and Latvia', Europe-Asia Studies, 53 7, 2001, pp. 1023-1049.
  • Esman, 'Ethnic Polities'.
  • Liliya Sagitova, Etnichnost' v sovrememom Tatarstane (Kazan', Tatpoligraf, 1998).
  • Lee, 'Restructuring Society', pp. 80-93.
  • Laczko , Leslie . 1996 . “ 'Language, Region, Race, Gender and Income: Perceptions of Inequalities in Quebec and English Canada' ” . In Social Inequality in Canada , Edited by: Frizzell , Alan and Pammett , Jon . 107 – 126 . Ottawa : Carleton University Press .
  • Lee, 'Restructuring Society', pp. 91-92.
  • Slider , Darrell . 1994 . 'Privatization in Russia's Regions' . Post-Soviet Affairs , 10 : 367 – 396 .
  • 2000 . Vremya i den'gi (Kazan') , 22 June : 2
  • Koroteeva . Ekonomicheskie interesy 118
  • The Tatar share was roughly the same in 2000 (95 out of 130 seats), according to Liliya Sagitova, 'Neravenstvo', unpublished ms., Institut Istorii AN RT, Kazan', 2001. By unofficial accounts, the Tatar share of the population by then was slightly over 50%. Earlier data on public office are more difficult to locate, but one source suggests that the Tatar share of party and government posts had been closer to half just before the onset of perestroka. See K. S. Idyatullina, Regional 'noe politicheskoe liderstvo v Rossii: Put' evofyutsii (Kazan', Karpol, 1997).
  • example , For . 1996 . Tatars outnumbered Russians by a factor of two or three to one in councils of the four largest cities in the mid-1990s-including predominantly Russian cities such as Kazan' and Naberezhnye Chelny. See Tatarstan: Osnovy politicheskogo ustroistva i kratkaya /Charakteristika ekonomiki , Moscow : Panorama . (This breakdown by nationality is based on coding of Tatar and Russian names.)
  • Spiridonova , I. E. 2000 . “ 'Aktual'nye problemy etnokul'tumogo vzaimodeistviya v RS (Ya): 90-e gody XX veka' ” . In Etnosotsial'noe razvitie respubliki Sakha (Yakutiya) , Edited by: Ivanov , V. N. 204 Novosibirsk : Nauka . Spiridonova puts the Yakut share of the population at 40% in 19%. Another source gives the proportions for 1994 as 39.6% Yakut and 45.5% Russian. See
  • 1998 . Respublika Sakha v tsifrakh. Kratkii statisticheskii sbomik , 12 Yakutsk : Goskomstat RS .
  • 1997 . "The 1996 Presidential Elections in Tatarstan' . Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics , 13 ( 1 ) March : 132 – 144 . Explanations for political indigenisation vary. Kaiser, 'Political Indigenization ', suggests that it may be the product of network and clan politics, and these predictabl y lead to greater representatio n for the indigenous nationalities. John Löwenhardt highlights more overt efforts to control public office by manipulating electoral returns in his
  • 2000 . The Village Votes: The December 1999 Elections in Tatarstan's Pestretsy District' . Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics , 16 ( 3 ) September : 113 – 122 .
  • Sagitova . 2000 . 'Neravenstvo', and Liliya Sagitova, Osobennosti rynochnoi ekonomiki v RT' . Zvezda povolzh'ya (Kazan') , 14 June : 3
  • Petrova , T. P. and Myarikyanova , E. T. “ 'Tendentsii etnosotsial 'nogo razvitya Sakha i Russkikh' ” . In Etnosotsial'noe razvitie Respubliki Sakha Edited by: Ivanov . 135 – 162 . Yakutiya
  • Koroteeva, Ekonomicheskie interesy.
  • McAllister , Ian and White , Stephen . 1995 . "The Legacy of the Nomenklatura: Economic Privilege in Postcommunist Russia' . Coexistence , 32 : 217 – 239 .
  • The Russian regional statistical handbook lists the percentage of workers employed in 'state-owned' or 'mixed-ownership' workplaces as 58.4% for the Russian Federation in 1997, and 73.5% for Tatarstan, 71.0% for North Ossetia and 74.8% for Sakha (Regiony Rossii. Statisticheskii Sbomik 1999, pp. 86-87).

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