Visitors’ acceptance of negative ecological impacts in national parks: comparing the explanatory power of psychographic scales in a Norwegian mountain setting

References

• Ankre , R. and Reinius , S. W. 2010 . Methodological perspectives: The application of self-registration cards in the Swedish coasts and mountains . Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism , 10 ( 1 ) : 74 – 80 . doi: 10.1080/15022250903561994
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anthony , R. G. , Steidl , R. J. and McGarigal , K. 1995 . “ Recreation and bald eagles in the Pacific Northwest ” . In Wildlife and recreationists – Coexistence through management and research , Edited by: Knight , R. L. and Gutzwiller , K. J. 223 – 241 . Washington , DC : Island Press .
   Google Scholar
• Balmford , A. , Beresford , J. , Green , J. , Naidoo , R. , Walpole , M. and Manica , A. 2009 . A global perspective on trends in nature-based tourism . PloS Biol , 7 ( 6 ) : e1000144 doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000144
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berle , P. A.A. 1990 . Two faces of eco-tourism . Audubon , 92 ( 2 ) : 6
   Google Scholar
• Boyle , S. A. and Samson , F. B. 1985 . Effectsof nonconsumptive recreation on wildlife: A review . Wildlife Society Bulletin , 13 : 110 – 116 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckley , R. 1999 . Tourism and biodiversity: Land-use, planning and impact assessment . The Journal of Tourism Studies , 10 ( 2 ) : 47 – 56 .
   Google Scholar
• Buckley , R. 2003 . Case studies in ecotourism , Wallingford : CABI Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Buckley , R. 2004 . “ Impacts positive and negative: Links between ecotourism and environment ” . In Environmental impacts of ecotourism , Edited by: Buckley , R. Wallingford : CABI Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Buckley , R. and Pannell , J. 1990 . Environmental impacts of tourism and recreation in national parks and conservation reserves . The Journal of Tourism Studies , 1 ( 1 ) : 24 – 32 .
   Google Scholar
• Butler , R. W. 1999 . Sustainable tourism: A state-of-the-art review . Tourism Geographies , 1 ( February 1999 ) : 7 – 25 . doi: 10.1080/14616689908721291
   Google Scholar
• Byrne , B. M. 2001 . Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming , Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Cole , D. N. 2004 . “ Impacts of hiking and camping on soils and vegetation ” . In Environmental impacts of ecotourism , Edited by: Buckley , R. Wallingford : CABI Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Cuhna , A. A. 2010 . Negative effects of tourism in a Brazilian Atlantic forest national park . Journal for Nature Conservation , 18 ( 4 ) : 291 – 295 . doi: 10.1016/j.jnc.2010.01.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deng , J. , King , B. and Bauer , T. 2002 . Evaluating natural attractions for tourism . Annals of Tourism Research , 29 ( 2 ) : 422 – 438 . doi: 10.1016/S0160-7383(01)00068-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deng , J. , Qiang , S. , Walker , G. J. and Zhang , Y. 2003 . Assessment on and perception of visitors’ environmental impacts of nature tourism: A case study of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, China . Journal of Sustainable Tourism , 11 ( 6 ) : 529 – 548 . doi: 10.1080/09669580308667219
   Google Scholar
• Dolnicar , S. , Crouch , G. I. and Long , P. 2008 . Environment-friendly tourists: What do we really know about them? . Journal of Sustainable Tourism , 16 ( 2 ) : 197 – 210 . doi: 10.2167/jost738.0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dolsen , D. E. , McCollough , S. A. , Dusek , G. L. and Weigand , J. P. 1996 . Beliefs about wildlife-related recreation in Montana . Human Dimensions of Wildlife , 1 : 83 – 84 . doi: 10.1080/10871209609359054
   Google Scholar
• Dunlap , R. E. and Van Liere , K. D. 1978 . The new environmental paradigm: A proposed measuring instrument and preliminary results . Journal of Environmental Education , 9 : 10 – 19 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunlap , R. E. , Van Liere , K. D. , Mertig , A. G. and Jones , R. E. 2000 . Measuring endorsement of the new ecological paradigm: A revised NEP scale . Journal of Social Issues , 56 : 425 – 442 . doi: 10.1111/0022-4537.00176
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eagles , P. F.J. 2002 . Trends in park tourism: Economics, finance and management . Journal of Sustainable Tourism , 10 ( 2 ) : 132 – 153 . doi: 10.1080/09669580208667158
   Google Scholar
• Eagles , P. F.J. and McCool , S. F. 2002 . Tourism in national parks and protected areas. Planning and management , Wallingford : CABI .
   Google Scholar
• Eagles , P. F.J. , Romagosa , F. , Buteau-Duitschaever , W. C. , Havitz , M. , Glover , T. D. and McCutcheon , B. 2012 . Good governance in protected areas: An evaluation of stakeholders’ perceptions in British Columbia and Ontario provincial parks . Journal of Sustainable Tourism , in press, DOI: 10.1080/09669582.2012.671331
   Google Scholar
• Edington , J. M. and Edington , M. A. 1986 . Ecology, recreation and tourism , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Eldegard , K. 2010 . Konsekvenser for naturmangfoldet av økt og/eller endret bruk av verneområder. Syntese av eksisterende kunnskap [Consequences for nature diversity due to increased and/or altered use of protected areas. Synthesis of exiting knowledge.] , Ås : Universitetet for miljø- og biovitenskap [Aas: Norwegian University of Life Sciences] .
   Google Scholar
• Fairweather , J. R. , Maslin , C. and Simmons , D. G. 2005 . Environmental values and response to ecolabels among international visitors to New Zealand . Journal of Sustainable Tourism , 13 ( 1 ) : 82 – 98 . doi: 10.1080/17501220508668474
   Google Scholar
• Floyd , M. F. , Jang , H. and Noe , F. P. 1997 . The relationship between environmental concern and acceptability of environmental impacts among visitors to two U.S. national park settings . Journal of Environmental Management , 51 ( 4 ) : 391 – 412 . doi: 10.1006/jema.1997.0151
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fransson , N. and Gärling , T. 1999 . Environmental concern: Conceptual definitions, measurement methods, and research findings . Journal of Environmental Psychology , 19 : 369 – 382 . doi: 10.1006/jevp.1999.0141
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredman , P. and Tyrväinen , L. 2010 . Frontiers in nature-based tourism . Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism , 10 ( 3 ) : 177 – 189 . doi: 10.1080/15022250.2010.502365
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gander , H. and Ingold , P. 1997 . Reactions of male alpine chamois Rupicapra r. rupicapra to hikers, joggers and mountainbikers . Biological Conservation , 79 ( 1 ) : 107 – 109 . doi: 10.1016/S0006-3207(96)00102-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Government.no . 2012 . Act of 19 June 2009 No. 100 relating to the management of biological, geological and landscape diversity (Nature Diversity Act) . Retrieved from http://www.regjeringen.no/en/doc/laws/Acts/nature-diversity-act.html?id=570549
   Google Scholar
• Hall , C. M. and Frost , W. 2009 . “ The future of the national park concept ” . In Tourism and national parks. International perspectives on development, histories and change , Edited by: Frost , W. and Hall , C. M. New York : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Hammitt , W. E. and Cole , D. N. 1998 . Wildland recreation: Ecology and management , New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Haukeland , J. V. 2011 . Tourism stakeholders’ perceptions of national park management in Norway . Journal of Sustainable Tourism , 19 ( 2 ) : 133 – 153 . doi: 10.1080/09669582.2010.517389
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haukeland , J. V. , Grue , B. and Veisten , K. 2010 . Turning national parks into tourist attractions: Nature orientation and quest for facilities . Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism , 10 ( 3 ) : 248 – 271 . doi: 10.1080/15022250.2010.502367
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hendee , J. C. , Catton , W. R. Jr. , Marlow , L. D. and Frank Brockman , C. 1968 . “ Wilderness users in the Pacific Northwest – Their characteristics, values, and management preferences ” . Research Paper PNW-61, USDA Forest Service, Portland, Oregon
   Google Scholar
• Hillery , M. , Nancarrow , B. , Griffin , G. and Syme , S. 2001 . Tourist perception of environmental impact . Annals of Tourism Research , 28 ( 4 ) : 853 – 867 . doi: 10.1016/S0160-7383(01)00004-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunter , C. and Green , H. 1995 . Tourism and the environment: A sustainable relationship? , London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Ingold , P. 2005 . Freizeitaktivitäten im Lebensraum der Alpentiere [Leisure activities in the habitats of alpine animals] , Basel : HauptBerne .
   Google Scholar
• Jaakson , R. and Shin , W. S. 1993 . Purism and wilderness campers . Journal of Social Psychology , 133 ( 4 ) : 489 – 493 . doi: 10.1080/00224545.1993.9712173
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaltenborn , B. P. , Andersen , O. , Nellemann , C. , Bjerke , T. and Thrane , C. 2008 . Resident attitudes towards mountain second-home tourism development in Norway: The effects of environmental attitudes . Journal of Sustainable Tourism , 16 ( 6 ) : 664 – 680 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuss , F. R. , Graefe , A. R. and Vaske , J. J. 1990 . Visitor impact management. A review of research , Washington , DC: : National Parks and Conservation Association. .
   Google Scholar
• Leung , Y.-F. and Marion , J. L. 2000 . “ Recreation impacts and management in wilderness: A state-of- knowledge review ” . In Proceedings: Wilderness science in a time of change; Volume 5: Wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management , Edited by: Cole , D. N. , McCool , S. F. , Borrie , W. T. and O’Loughlin , J. 23 – 48 . Ogden , Utah : U.S. Department of Agriculture–Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station .
   Google Scholar
• Liddle , M. J. 1997 . Recreation ecology. The ecological impact of outdoor recreation and ecotourism , London : Chapman & Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Line , N. and Costen , W. 2011 . Environmental attitudes, motivation, and attachment: Toward a model of nature-based tourism , Amherst : University of Massachusetts . International CHRIE Conference-Refereed Track. Paper 5
   Google Scholar
• Luo , Y. and Deng , J. 2008 . The new environmental paradigm and nature-based tourism motivation . Journal of Travel Research , 46 ( May ) : 392 – 402 .
   Google Scholar
• Luzar , E. J. , Diagne , A. , Gan , C. and Henning , B. R. 1995 . Evaluating nature-based tourism using the new environmental paradigm . Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics , 27 ( 2 ) : 544 – 555 .
   Google Scholar
• Lynn , N. A. and Brown , R. D. 2003 . Effects of recreational use of impacts on hiking experiences in natural areas . Landscape and Urban Planning , 64 ( 1–2 ) : 77 – 87 . doi: 10.1016/S0169-2046(02)00202-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manning , R. E. 1999 . Studies in outdoor recreation: Search and research for satisfaction , Corvallis , OR : Oregon State University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Marion , J. L. and Leung , Y.-F. 2001 . Trail resource impacts and an examination of alternative assessment techniques . Journal of Park and Recreation Administration , 19 ( 3 ) : 17 – 37 .
   Google Scholar
• McCool , S. F. 2009 . Constructing partnerships for protected area tourism planning in an era of change and messiness . Journal of Sustainable Tourism , 17 ( 2 ) : 133 – 148 . doi: 10.1080/09669580802495733
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monz , C. A. , Cole , D. N. , Leung , Y.-F. and Marion , J.-L. 2010 . Sustaining visitor use in protected areas: Future opportunities in recreation ecology research based on the USA experience . Environmental Management , : 551 – 562 . DOI 10.1007/s00267-009-9406-5 doi: 10.1007/s00267-009-9406-5
   Google Scholar
• Nellemann , C. 2010 . Effects of recreational cabins, trails and their removal for restoration of reindeer winter ranges . Restoration Ecology , 18 ( 6 ) : 873 – 881 . doi: 10.1111/j.1526-100X.2009.00517.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newsome , D. , Moore , S. A. and Dowling , R. K. 2002 . Natural area tourism: Ecology, impacts and management , Clevedon : Channel View Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Noe , F. P. and Snow , R. 1990 . The new environmental paradigm and further scale analysis . Journal of Environmental Education , 21 ( 4 ) : 20 – 26 . doi: 10.1080/00958964.1990.9941934
   Google Scholar
• Petrosillo , I. , Zurlini , G. , Corlianò , M. E. , Zaccarelli , N. and Dadamo , M. 2007 . Tourist perception of recreational environment and management in a marine protected area . Landscape and Urban Planning , 79 ( 1 ) : 29 – 37 . doi: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2006.02.017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pigram , J. J. 1990 . Sustainable tourism – policy considerations . The Journal of Tourism Studies , 1 ( 2 ) : 2 – 8 .
   Google Scholar
• Priskin , J. 2003 . Tourist perceptions of degradation caused by coastal nature-based recreation . Environmental Management , 32 ( 2 ) : 189 – 204 . doi: 10.1007/s00267-002-2916-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puhakka , R. 2011 . Environmental concern and responsibility among nature tourists in Oulanka PAN Park, Finland . Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism , 1) ( 11 ) : 76 – 96 . doi: 10.1080/15022250.2011.532589
   Google Scholar
• Raubenheimer , J. E. 2004 . An item selection procedure to maximize scale reliability and validity . South African Journal of Industrial Psychology , 30 ( 4 ) : 59 – 64 .
   Google Scholar
• Reinius , S. W. and Fredman , P. 2007 . Protected areas as attractions . Annals of Tourism Research , 34 ( 4 ) : 839 – 854 . doi: 10.1016/j.annals.2007.03.011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saarinen , J. 2005 . “ Tourism in the northern wilderness: Wilderness discourses and the development of nature-based tourism in Northern Finland ” . In Nature-based tourism in peripheral areas: Development or disaster? , Edited by: Hall , C. M. and Boyd , S. Clevedon : Channel View Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Shafer , C. S. and Hammitt , W. E. 1995 . Congruency among wilderness experience dimensions, condition indicators, and user coping behaviors . Leisure Sciences , 17 ( 4 ) : 263 – 279 . doi: 10.1080/01490409509513262
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spenceley , A. 2005 . Nature-based tourism and environmental sustainability in South Africa . Journal of Sustainable Tourism , 13 ( 2 ) : 136 – 170 . doi: 10.1080/09669580508668483
   Google Scholar
• Stankey , G. H. 1973 . Visitor perception of wilderness recreation carrying capacity Res. Pap. INT-142. Leopold Publication Number 25. Ogden, UT, USDA For. Serv., Intermountain Forest and Range Exper. Stn
   Google Scholar
• Sterl , P. , Brandenburg , C. and Arnberger , A. 2008 . Visitors’ awareness and assessment of recreational disturbance of wildlife in the Donau-Auen National Park . Journal for Nature Conservation , 16 : 135 – 145 . doi: 10.1016/j.jnc.2008.06.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern , P. C. , Dietz , T. , Kalof , L. and Guagnano , G. A. 1995 . Values, beliefs and pro-environmental action: Attitude formation toward emergent attitude objects . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 25 : 1611 – 1636 . doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1995.tb02636.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strand , O. 2010 . “ Ferdsel i villreinens leveområder ” . NINA-Rapport 551: 101 Trondheim Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA)
   Google Scholar
• Teisl , M. F. and O’Brien , K. 2003 . Who cares and who acts? Outdoor recreationists exhibit different levels of environmental concern and behavior . Environment and Behavior , 35 : 506 – 522 . doi: 10.1177/0013916503035004004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uddenberg , N. 1995 . Det stora sammanhanget: moderna svenskars syn på människans plats i naturen [The great connection: modern Swedes' views on man's place in nature] , Nora : Nya Doxa .
   Google Scholar
• US Wilderness Act . 1964 . Public Law 88-577.78 Stat. 890
   Google Scholar
• Uysal , M. , Jurowski , C. , Noe , F. P. and McDonald , C. D. 1994 . Environmental attitude by trip and visitor characteristics: US Virgin Islands national park . Tourism Management , 15 ( 4 ) : 284 – 294 . doi: 10.1016/0261-5177(94)90046-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vistad , O. I. 1995 . I skogen og i skolten – Ein analyse av friluftsliv, miljøoppleving, påverknad og forvaltning i Femundsmarka, med jamføringar til Rogen og Långfjället [In the forest and in the head – an analysis of outdoor recreation, nature environment experience, impacts and management, and with comparisons with Rogen and Langfjället] , Trondheim : University of Trondheim . Doctoral Thesis in Human Geography
   Google Scholar
• Vistad , O. I. 2004 . Experience and management of recreational impact on the ground – A study among visitors and managers . Journal for Nature Conservation , 11 ( 4 ) : 363 – 369 . doi: 10.1078/1617-1381-00069
   Google Scholar
• Vistad , O. I. and Vorkinn , M. 2012 . The wilderness purism construct – Experiences from Norway with a simplified version of the purism scale . Forest Policy and Economics , 19 : 39 – 47 . doi: 10.1016/j.forpol.2011.12.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vorkinn , M. 2003 . Bruk og brukere i Jotunheimen (Use and visitors in Jotunheimen) , Lillehammer : Eastern Norway Research Institute . Endringer fra 1992 til 2002. Foreløpig notat
   Google Scholar
• Weaver , D. B. and Lawton , L. J. 2002 . Overnight ecotourist market segmentation in the Gold Coast hinterland of Australia . Journal of Travel Research , 40 ( 3 ) : 270 – 281 .
   Google Scholar
• Wray , K. , Espiner , S. and Perkins , H. C. 2010 . Cultural clash: Interpreting established use and new tourism activities in protected natural areas . Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism , 10 ( 3 ) : 272 – 290 . doi: 10.1080/15022250.2010.496570
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wurzinger , S. and Johansson , M. 2006 . Environmental concern and knowledge of ecotourism among three groups of Swedish tourists . Journal of Travel Research , 45 : 217 – 226 . doi: 10.1177/0047287506291602
   Google Scholar