6,297
Views
12
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Part 1: Addressing structural violence

Fortress tourism: exploring dynamics of tourism, security and peace around the Virunga transboundary conservation area

&
Pages 352-371 | Received 25 Jul 2020, Accepted 25 Nov 2020, Published online: 15 Dec 2020

References

  • Adams, W. M., & Infield, M. (2003). Who is on the gorilla’s payroll? Claims on tourist revenue from a Ugandan National Park. World Development, 31(1), 177–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(02)00149-3
  • African Rights. (1998). Rwanda: The insurgency in the Northwest. African Rights.
  • African Wildlife Fund. (2020). Endangered mountain gorillas find a safe haven in Africa’s oldest park, https://www.awf.org/blog/endangered-mountain-gorillas-find-safe-haven-africas-oldest-park
  • Ali, S. H. (2007). Peace parks. Conservation and conflict resolution. MIT Press.
  • Alluri, R. M. (2009). The role of tourism in post-conflict peacebuilding in Rwanda. Working Paper, Swiss Peace Foundation.
  • Andersson, J. A., de Garine-Wichatitsky, M., Cumming, D. H. M., Dzingirai, V., & Giller, K. E. (2013). People at wildlife frontiers in Southern Africa. In J. A. Andersson, M. de Garine-Wichatitsky, D. H. M. Cumming, V. Dzingirai, & K. E. Giller (Eds.), Transfrontier conservation areas. People living on the edge (pp. 1–11). Routledge.
  • Autessere, S. (2012). Dangerous tales: Dominant narratives on the Congo and their unintended consequences. African Affairs, 111(443), 202–222.
  • Avraham, E., & Ketter, E. (2016). Tourism marketing for developing countries: battling stereotypes and crises in Asia, Africa and the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Baral, N., & Heinen, J. T. (2005). The Maoist people’s war and conservation in Nepal. Political and the Life Sciences, 24(1–2), 2–11. https://doi.org/10.2990/1471-5457(2005)24 < 2:TMPWAC>2.0.CO;2
  • Blanchard, L., & Higgins-Desbiolles, F. (2013). Peace through tourism: promoting human security through international citizenship. Routledge.
  • Bocajero, D., & Ojeda, D. (2016). Violence and conservation: beyond unintended consequences and unfortunate coincidences. Geoforum, 69, 176–183.
  • Brockington, D. (2002). Fortress conservation: The preservation of the Mkomazi Game Reserve. James Currey.
  • Brockington, D., Duffy, R., & Igoe, J. (2008). Nature unbound. Conservation, capitalism and the future of protected areas. Earthscan.
  • Büscher, B., & Fletcher, R. (2017). Destructive creation: capital accumulation and the structural violence of tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 25(5), 651–1858. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2016.1159214
  • Bush, G. K., Ikirezi, M., Daconto, G., Gray, M., & Fawcett, K. (2010). Assessing impacts from community conservation interventions around Parc National des Volcans, Rwanda. Technical Report. International Gorilla Conservation Program.
  • Collier, P., & Hoeffler, A. (2000). Greed and grievance in civil war. Policy Research Working Paper 2355. World Bank.
  • Creswell, J., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Sage Publications.
  • D’Amore, L. (2009). Peace through tourism: the birthing of a new socio-economic order. Journal of Business Ethics, 89(S4), 559–568. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-010-0407-3
  • de Merode, E., Smith, K. H., Homewood, K., Pettifor, R., Rowcliffe, M., & Cowlishaw, G. (2007). The impact of armed conflict on protected-area efficacy in Central Africa. Biology Letters, 3(3), 299–301. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2007.0010
  • Doyle, M. W. (2005). Three pillars of the liberal peace. American Political Science Review, 99(3), 463–466. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055405051798
  • Duffy, R. (2006). The potential and pitfalls of global environmental governance: The politics of transfrontier conservation areas in Southern Africa. Political Geography, 25(1), 89–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2005.08.001
  • Duffy, R. (2014). Waging a war to save biodiversity: The rise of militarised conservation. International Affairs, 4, 384–819.
  • Fairhead, J. (2005). Transnational dimensions to environmental resource dynamics: Modes of governance and local resource management in eastern DRC. In Q. Gausset, M. A. Whyte, & T. Birch-Thomsen (Eds.), Beyond territory and scarcity: Exploring conflicts over natural resource management (pp. 195–215). Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.
  • Fletcher, R. (2011). ‘The only risk is wanting to stay’: Mediating risk in Colombian tourism development. Recreation and Society in Africa, Asia and Latin America, 1(2), 7–30.
  • Fletcher, R., Büscher, B., Massarella, K., & Koot, S. (2020). Ecotourism and conservation under COVID-19 and beyond. ATLAS Tourism and Leisure Review, 2, 42–50.
  • Galtung, J. (1969). Violence, peace and peace research. Journal of Peace Research, 6(3), 167–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/002234336900600301
  • Galtung, J. (1996). Peace by peaceful means: Peace and conflict, development and civilization. Sage Publications.
  • Gourevitch, P. (1998). We wish to inform you that tomorrow we will be killed with our families: stories from Rwanda. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
  • Greater Virunga Transboundary Collaboration. (2006 [2014]). Ten Year Strategic Plan, Rubavu.
  • Grosspietsch, M. (2006). Perceived and projected image of Rwanda: visitor and international tour operator perspectives. Tourism Management, 27(2), 225–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2004.08.005
  • Haessly, J. (2010). Tourism and a culture of peace. In O. Moufakkir & I. Kelly (Eds.), Tourism, progress, and peace (pp. 1–16). CABI Publisher.
  • Hall, M. C., Dallen, T. J., & Duval, T. D. (2004). Security and tourism. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 15(2–3), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1300/J073v15n02_01
  • Hanks, J. (2003). Transfrontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs) in Southern Africa: Their role in conserving biodiversity, socioeconomic development and promoting a culture of peace. Journal of Sustainable Forestry, 17(1–2), 127–148. https://doi.org/10.1300/J091v17n01_08
  • Haq, M. (1999). Reflections on human development (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
  • Hochschild, A. R. (1983 [2012]). The managed heart. University of California Press.
  • Honey, M., & Gilpin, R. (2009). Special report on ‘tourism in the developing world: Promoting peace and reducing poverty. United State Institute of Peace.
  • Human Rights Watch. (2005). Democratic Republic of Congo: The curse of gold, https://www.hrw.org/reports/2005/drc0505/12.htm
  • Human Rights Watch. (2019). World Report 2019: Democratic Republic of Congo. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/democratic-republic-congo
  • Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP). (2017). Global Peace Index 2017. IEP Report 48.
  • International Institute of Peace through Tourism (IIPT). (2017). About us - International Institute for Peace through Tourism. http://www.iipt.org/AboutUs.html
  • International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). (2020). Transboundary Conservation. https://www.iucn.org/commissions/world-commission-protected-areas/our-work/transboundary-conservation
  • Jenkins, M. (2008). Who murdered the Virunga Gorillas? http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/07/virunga/jenkins-text
  • Joras, U., Palme, K., Alluri, R., & Leicher, M. (2011). Tourismus, Frieden und Konflikt: Effekte, Strategien und das privatwirtschaftliche Engagement in der Friedensförderung. Deutsche Stiftung Friedensforschung.
  • Kalulu, R., Tushabe, E., & Nsabimana, E. (2016). Local community attitude and perceptions towards tourism conservation policies in Rwanda case of Volcanoes National Park. Asian Journal of Science and Technology, 7(11), 3811–3819.
  • Kanyamibwa, S. (1998). Impact of war on conservation: Rwandan environment and wildlife in agony. Biodiversity and Conservation, 7(11), 1399–1406. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008880113990
  • Kelly, I. (2006). Introduction to peace through tourism. IIPT Occasional Paper No. 1, Global Educators Network.
  • Kujirakwinja, D., Shamavu, P., Hammill, A., Crawford, A., Bamba, A., & Plumptre, A. J. (2010). Healing the rift: Peacebuilding in and around the protected areas in the Democratic Republic of Congo’s Albertine Rift. Unpublished Report to USAID.
  • Maekawa, M., Lanjouw, A., Rutagarama, E., & Sharp, D. (2013). Mountain gorilla tourism generating wealth and peace in post-conflict Rwanda. Natural Resources Forum, 37(2), 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-8947.12020
  • Mbaiwa, J. E. (2005). Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Tourism Management, 26(2), 157–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005
  • Moufakkir, O., & Kelly, I. (2010). Tourism, progress, and peace. CABI Publisher.
  • Levy, S. E., & Hawkins, D. E. (2009). Peace through tourism: Commerce-based principles and practices. Journal of Business Ethics, 89(S4), 569–585. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-010-0408-2
  • Lisle, D. (2016). Holidays in the danger zone: Entanglements of war and tourism. University of Minnesota Press.
  • Litvin, S. (1998). Tourism: The world’s peace industry? Journal of Travel Research, 37(1), 63–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728759803700108
  • Lombard, L., & Tubiana, J. (2020). Bringing the tracker guards back in: Arms-carrying markets and quests for status in conservation at war. Political Geography, 79, 102131–102111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2019.102131
  • Lopez, E., Awawi, A., & Salcedo-Albarán, E. (2017). Trafficking of coltan in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Global Observatory of Transnational Criminal Networks. Research Paper No. 6.
  • Lunstrum, E. (2014). Green militarization: anti-poaching efforts and the spatial contours of Kruger National Park. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 104(4), 816–832. https://doi.org/10.1080/00045608.2014.912545
  • Marijnen, E. (2018). Public authority and conservation in areas of armed conflict: Virunga National Park as a ‘state within a state’ in Eastern Congo. Development and Change, 49(3), 790–814. https://doi.org/10.1111/dech.12380
  • Marijnen, E., & Verweijen, J. (2016). Selling green militarization: The discursive (re)production of militarized conservation in the Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Geoforum, 75, 274–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.08.003
  • Mearns, K. (2012). Community-based tourism and peace parks benefit local communities through conservation in Southern Africa. Acta Academica, 44, 70–87.
  • Minarchek, M. (2020). Creating environmental subjects: Conservation as counter-insurgency in Aceh, Indonesia, 1925–1940. Political Geography, 81, 102189–102113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2020.102189
  • Munanura, I. E., Backman, K. F., Hallo, J. C., & Powell, R. B. (2016). Perceptions of tourism revenue sharing impacts on Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda: a Sustainable Livelihoods framework. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 24(12), 1709–1726. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2016.1145228
  • Nassani, A. A., Zaman, K., Aldakhil, A. M., & Qazi, A. M. (2017). War economy and pleasure: assessing the effects of military expenditure on tourism growth. Quality & Quantity, 51(4), 1733–1754. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-016-0362-x
  • National Geographic. (2016). Inside the fight to save one of the world’s most dangerous parks. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2016/07/virunga-national-parks-africa-congo-rangers/
  • Neumann, R. P. (2004). Moral and discursive geographies in the war for biodiversity in Africa. Political Geography, 23(7), 813–837. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2004.05.011
  • Neumayer, E. (2004). The impact of political violence on tourism. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 48(2), 259–281. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002703262358
  • Nielsen, H., & Spenceley, A. (2010). The success of tourism in Rwanda. Gorillas and more. Background Paper for the African Success Stories Study. World Bank.
  • Nkurunungi, J. B., & Ampumuza, C. (2013). Assessment of the impacts of mountain gorilla habituation and tourism on their sustainable conservation. Consultancy Report for the International Gorilla Conservation Programme.
  • Nunkoo, R., & Ramkissoon, H. (2016). Stakeholders’ views of enclave tourism: A grounded theory approach. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 40(5), 557–588. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348013503997
  • Pemunta, N. V. (2019). Fortress conservation, wildlife legislation and the Baka Pygmies of southeast Cameroon. GeoJournal, 84(4), 1035–1055. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-018-9906-z
  • Pizam, A. (1996). Does tourism promote peace and understanding between unfriendly nations? In A. Pizam & Y. Mansfeld (Eds.), Tourism, crime, and international security issues. John Wiley & Sons.
  • Prunier, G. (2011). Africa's world war: Congo, the Rwandan genocide, and the making of a continental catastrophe. Oxford University Press.
  • Ricardo, D. (1817 [1992]). The principles of political economy and taxation. Rutland.
  • Robbins, M. (2014). Gorilla Journal 48, June, Berggorilla & Regenwald Direkthilfe. www.berggorilla.org/fileadmin/gorilla-journal/gorillajournal-48-english.pdf
  • Rwanda Development Board. (2020). Rwanda wins emerging destination award as top 30 place to travel in 2020, and top overall in Africa. https://rdb.rw/rwanda-wins-emerging-destination-award-as-top-30-place-to-travel-in-2020-and-top-overall-in-africa/
  • Sabuhoro, E., Wright, B. A., Powell, R. B., Hallo, J. C., Layton, P. A., & Munanura, I. E. (2020). Perceptions and behaviors of indigenous populations regarding illegal use of protected area resources in East Africa's Mountain Gorilla Landscape. Environmental Management, 65(3), 410–419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-020-01254-z
  • Sandbrook, C. (2010). Putting leakage in its place: the significance of retained tourism revenue in the local context in rural Uganda. Journal of International Development, 22(1), 124–136. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.1507
  • Sandwith, T., Shine, C., Hamilton, L. S., & Sheppard, D. (2001). Transboundary protected areas for peace and co-operation. Best Practice Protected Area Guideline Series No. 7. IUCN.
  • Sönmez, S. F. (1998). Tourism, terrorism, and political instability. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(2), 416–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(97)00093-5
  • Spencer, J. P., & Rurangwa, M. (2012). Tourism as a route for the economic development of rural areas of Rwanda: Vibrant hope or impossible dreams? African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance, 18 (4:2), 1023–1042.
  • Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. M. (1997). Grounded theory in practice. Sage.
  • Twinamatsiko, M., Baker, J., Harrison, M., Shirkhorshidi, M., Bitariho, R., Wieland, M., Asuma, S., Milner-Gulland, E. J., Franks, P., & Roe, D. (2014). Linking Conservation, Equity and Poverty Alleviation: Understanding profiles and motivations of resource users and local perceptions of governance at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. IIED Research Report.
  • Tripp, A. M. (2010). Museveni’s Uganda. Paradoxes of power in a hybrid regime. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
  • Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA). (2020). Community and conservation. https://www.ugandawildlife.org/wildlife-a-conservation-2/conservation/communities-a-conservation
  • United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). (2000). The Rwandan Genocide and Its Aftermath. In The State if the World’s Refugees 2000: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action. UN Report, pp. 245–275.
  • UNEP‐MONUSCO‐OSESG. (2015, April 15). Experts’ background report on illegal exploitation and trade in natural resources benefitting organized criminal groups and recommendations on MONUSCO’s role in fostering stability and peace in eastern DR Congo. Final report. www.unep.org, 12-12-2019.
  • UNEP. (2009). From conflict to peacebuilding: The role of natural resources and the environment. United Nations Environment Programme. http://www.unep.org.
  • UNEP. (2016). Environmental cooperation for peacebuilding programme. Final Report 2016. : UNEP.
  • UN Security Council Presidential Statement (S/PRST/2000/20), June 2, 2000.
  • UN Security Council Resolution 1457 (S/RES/1457/2003), January 24, 2003.
  • US National Counterterrorism Center (USNCC). (2009). Report on terrorism. Office of the Director of National Intelligence, April 30, 2010.
  • UNWTO (United Nations World Tourism Organization). (2016). Towards measuring the economic value of wildlife watching tourism in Africa. Briefing Paper. UNWTO.
  • UNWTO. (2016). Tourism, a catalyst for peace and development. http://media.unwto.org/press-release/2016-07-14/tourism-catalyst-peace-and-development
  • Vedder, A., & Weber, B. (1990). The Mountain Gorilla Project. In A. Kiss (Ed.), Living with wildlife: Wildlife resource management with local participation in Africa. World Bank, 195–211.
  • Virunga National Park (PNVi). (2020). Virunga Alliance. https://virunga.org/alliance
  • Volcanoes National Park (VNP). (2018). Rwanda's rise after the genocide. https://www.volcanoesnationalparkrwanda.com/rwanda/24-years-rwanda-after-genocide.html
  • Volcanoes National Park (VNP). (2018). Rwanda gorilla safaris decline after price hike. https://www.volcanoesnationalparkrwanda.com/blog.html/page/5/
  • Weaver, A. (2011). Tourism and the military. Pleasure and the war economy. Annals of Tourism Research, 38(2), 672–689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2010.12.005
  • Williamson, J. (1989). What Washington means by policy reform. In J. Williamson (Ed.), Latin American readjustment: how much has happened. Peterson Institute for International Economics, Chapter 2 , https://www.piie.com/commentary/speeches-papers/what-washington-means-policy-reform.
  • World Bank. (2013). Addressing violence against women in war-torn regions, https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2013/12/09/addressing-violence-against-women-in-war-torn-regions
  • World Health Organization. (2002). World report on violence and health.
  • World Travel and Tourism Council. (2016). Tourism as a driver of peace. Policy Paper.
  • Ybarra, M. (2016). Blind passes’ and the production of green security through violence on the Guatemalan border. Geoforum, 69, 194–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2015.06.004