Testimonial injustice: exploring ‘credibility’ as a barrier to justice for people with learning disabilities/autism who report sexual violence

References

• Altantulkhuur, K. 2018. “A Second Rape: Testing Victim Credibility through Prior False Accusations.” University of Illinois Law Review 3: 1091–1146.
   Google Scholar
• Antaki, C., E. Richardson, E. Stokoe, and S. Willott. 2015. “Can People with Intellectual Disability Resist Implications of Fault When Police Question Their Allegations of Sexual Assault and Rape?” Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 53 (5): 346–357. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-53.5.346
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baird, V. 2020. 2019/20 Victims’ Commissioner Annual Report. London: Victims’ Commissioner for England and Wales.
   Google Scholar
• Balderston, S., H. Morgan, A. Day, and R. Fish. 2019. Tackling Violence Against Women and Girls. London: Disability Rights UK. Available at: www.avaproject.org.uk
   Google Scholar
• Bates, K., D. Goodley, and K. Runswick-Cole. 2017. “Precarious Lives and Resistant Possibilities: The Labour of People with Learning Disabilities in Times of Austerity.” Disability & Society 32 (2): 160–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2017.1281105
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baverstock, J. 2016. Process evaluation of pre-recorded cross examination pilot (Section 28). Ministry of Justice Analytical Series. Available online https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/553335/process-evaluation-doc.pdf [accessed 02/08/2021]
   Google Scholar
• Björnsdóttir, K., and G. V. Stefánsdóttir. 2020. “Double Sexual Standards: Sexuality and People with Intellectual Disabilities Who Require Intensive Support.” Sexuality and Disability 38 (3): 421–438. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11195-020-09643-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgin, R., and A. Flynn. 2021. “Women’s Behavior as Implied Consent: Male “Reasonableness” in Australian Rape Law.” Criminology & Criminal Justice 21 (3): 334–352. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895819880953
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braun, V., and V. Clarke. 2006. “Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology.” Qualitative Research in Psychology 3 (2): 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
   Google Scholar
• Crown Prosecution Service (CPS). 2018. The Code for Crown Prosecutors. Online https://www.cps.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/publications/Code-for-Crown-Prosecutors-October-2018.pdf [accessed 16/09/21]
   Google Scholar
• Crown Prosecution Service (CPS). 2021. Special Measures. Online https://www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/special-measures [accessed 18/08/2022]
   Google Scholar
• Cusack, A. 2017. “Victims of Crime with Intellectual Disabilities and Ireland’s Adversarial Trial: Some Ontological, Procedural and Attitudinal Concerns.” Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly 68 (4): 433–449. https://doi.org/10.53386/nilq.v68i4.57
   Google Scholar
• Digman, C. 2021. “Lost Voices Part 1: A Narrative Case Study of Two Young Men with Learning Disabilities Disclosing Experiences of Sexual, Emotional and Physical Abuse.” British Journal of Learning Disabilities 49 (2): 195–204. https://doi.org/10.1111/bld.12364
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellison, L., and V. E. Munro. 2008. “Reacting to Rape: Exploring Mock Jurors’ Assessments of Complainant Credibility.” British Journal of Criminology 49 (2): 202–219. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azn077
   Google Scholar
• Ellison, L., V. Munro, K. Hohl, and P. Wallang. 2015. “Challenging Criminal Justice? Psychosocial Disability and Rape Victimisation.” Criminology & Criminal Justice 15 (2): 225–244. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895814543535
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Equality and Human Rights Commission. 2020. Inclusive justices: A system designed for all. https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/publication-download/inclusive-justice-system-designed-all
   Google Scholar
• Evans, D. N. 2013. “Perceptions of the Victimisation of Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities.” Advances in Applied Sociology 03 (02): 114–123. https://doi.org/10.4236/aasoci.2013.32015
   Google Scholar
• Fairclough, S. 2020. Special Measures Literature Review. London: Victims Commissioner.
   Google Scholar
• Fish, R. 2016. “They’ve Said I’m Vulnerable with Men’: Doing Sexuality on Locked Wards.” Sexualities 19 (5-6): 641–658. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460715620574
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fricker, M. 2009. Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• George, R., and S. Ferguson. 2021. Review into the Criminal Justice System response to adult rape and serious sexual offences across England and Wales – Research Report. https://data.parliament.uk/DepositedPapers/Files/DEP2021-0543/End-to-end_Rape_Review.pdf [accessed 20/04/2022].
   Google Scholar
• Gibbs, V., A. M. A. Love, R. Y. Cai, and K. Haas. 2021. “Police Interactions and the Autistic Community: Perceptions of Procedural Justice.” Disability & Society 38 (9): 1608–1625. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2021.2007359
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gudjonsson, G. H., and L. Henry. 2003. “Child and Adult Witnesses with Intellectual Disability: The Importance of Suggestibility.” Legal and Criminological Psychology 8 (2): 241–252. https://doi.org/10.1348/135532503322363013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hohl, K., and B. Stanko. 2015. “Complaints of Rape and the Criminal Justice System: Fresh Evidence on the Attrition Problem in England and Wales.” European Journal of Criminology 12 (3): 324–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370815571949
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollomotz, A. 2009. “Beyond ‘Vulnerability’: An Ecological Model Approach to Conceptualizing Risk of Sexual Violence against People with Learning Difficulties.” British Journal of Social Work 39 (1): 99–112. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcm091
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollomotz, A. 2012. “A Lad Tried to Get Hold of my Boobs, so I Kicked Him’: An Examination of Attempts by Adults with Learning Difficulties to Initiate Their Own Safeguarding.” Disability & Society 27 (1): 117–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2012.631801
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollomotz, A., L. Burch, and R. Bashall. 2023. Formal support needs of disabled adult victim-survivors of sexual violence: A qualitative research report. Ministry of Justice Analytical Series. Available at http://www.justice.gov.uk/publications/research-and-analysis/moj ­[accessed 26 February 24].
   Google Scholar
• Kaufmann, G., G. Drevland, E. Wessel, G. Overskei, and S. Magnussen. 2003. “The Importance of Being Earnest: Displayed Emotions and Witness Credibility.” Applied Cognitive Psychology 17 (1): 21–34. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.842
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keilty, J., and G. Connelly. 2001. “Making a Statement: An Exploratory Study of the Barriers Facing Women with an Intellectual Disability When Making a Statement about Sexual Assault to the Police.” Disability & Society 16 (2): 273–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687590120035843
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, L., J. Lovett, and L. Regan. 2005. A Gap or a Chasm? Attrition in Reported Rape Cases. “Home Office Research Study.” 293. London: Home Office.
   Google Scholar
• Kiger, M. E., and L. Varpio. 2020. “Thematic Analysis of Qualitative Data: AMEE Guide No. 131.” Medical Teacher 42 (8): 846–854. https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159X.2020.1755030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuosmanen, J., and M. Starke. 2015. “The Ideal Victims? Women with Intellectual Disability as Victims of Prostitution-Related Crime.” Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research 17 (1): 62–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/15017419.2013.813409
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larcombe, Wendy, Bianca Fileborn, Anastasia Powell, Natalia Hanley, and Nicola Henry. 2016. “I Think It is Rape and I Think he Would Be Found Not Guilty’: Focus Group Perceptions of (un)Reasonable Belief in Consent in Rape Law.” Social & Legal Studies 25 (5): 611–629. https://doi.org/10.1177/0964663916647442
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Majeed-Aris, R., P. Rodriguez, and C. White. 2020. “The Disproportionately High Prevalence of Learning Disabilities Amongst Adults Attending Saint Marys Sexual Assault Referral Centre.” Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities: JARID 33 (3): 595–603. https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12703
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacDonald, S., C. Donovan, and J. Clayton. 2021. “I May Be Left with No Choice but to End my Torment’: disability and Intersectionalities of Hate Crime.” Disability & Society 38 (1): 127–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2021.1928480
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacDonald, S., D. Peacock, F. Cosgrove, and W. Podd. 2021. “The Silence’: Examining the Missing Voices of Disabled People in Police Custody.” Disability & Society 36 (1): 19–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2020.1712190
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGlynn, C., J. Downes, and N. Westmarland. 2017. Seeking Justice for Survivors of Sexual Violence: Recognition, Voice and Consequences.', in Restorative Responses to Sexual Violence: Legal, Social and Therapeutic. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, pp. 179–191.
   Google Scholar
• Milne, R., and R. Bull. 2001. “Interviewing Witnesses with Learning Disabilities for Legal Purposes.” British Journal of Learning Disabilities 29 (3): 93–97. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-3156.2001.00139.x
   Google Scholar
• Ministry of Justice. (June 2021. The end-to-end rape review report on findings and actions. London: HM Government https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1001417/end-to-end-rape-review-report-with-correction-slip.pdf [accessed 11/03/2022]
   Google Scholar
• Ministry of Justice. 2011. Achieving best evidence in criminal proceedings: Guidance on interviewing victims and witnesses, and guidance on using special measures. London: HM Goverment https://www.cps.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/legal_guidance/best_evidence_in_criminal_proceedings.pdf [accessed 16/09/21]
   Google Scholar
• Ministry of Justice. 2015. Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act (CPIA) Code of Practice. Online https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/447967/code-of-practice-approved.pdf [accessed 16/09/21]
   Google Scholar
• Montefusco, M. 2016. When Society Does Not See, Hear or Understand: Gender-Related Violence and Disability. Stockholm: Nordic Centre for Welfare and Social Issues.
   Google Scholar
• Nitschke, F. T., B. M. McKimmie, and E. J. Vanma. 2019. “A Meta-Analysis of the Emotional Victim Effect for Female Adult Rape Complainants: Does Complainant Distress Influence Credibility?” Psychological Bulletin 145 (10): 953–979. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000206
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norris, J. E., L. Crane, and K. Maras. 2020. “Interviewing Autistic Adults: Adaptations to Support Recall in Police, Employment and Healthcare Interviews.” Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice 24 (6): 1506–1520. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361320909174
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Neal, E. N. 2019. “Victim is Not Credible”: the Influence of Rape Culture on Police Perceptions of Sexual Assault Complainants.” Justice Quarterly 36 (1): 127–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2017.1406977
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plotnikoff, J., and R. Woolfson. 2019. Falling Short? A Snapshot of Young Witness Policy and Practice Full Report. London: NSPCC.
   Google Scholar
• Powell, A. J., H. R. Hlavka, and S. Mulla. 2017. “Intersectionality and Credibility in Child Sexual Assault Trials.” Gender & Society 31 (4): 457–480. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243217716116
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roulstone, Alan, Pam Thomas, and Susie Balderston. S. 2011. “Between Hate and Vulnerability: Unpacking the British Criminal Justice System’s Construction of Disablist Hate Crime.” Disability & Society 26 (3): 351–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2011.560418
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah, S., L. Tsitsou, and S. Woodin. 2016. “Hidden Voices: Disabled Women’s Experiences of Violence and Support over the Life Course.” Violence against Women 22 (10): 1189–1210. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215622577
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, O., and T. Skinner. 2017. “How Rape Myths Are Used and Challenged in Rape and Sexual Assault Trials.” Social & Legal Studies 26 (4): 441–466. https://doi.org/10.1177/0964663916680130
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, O. 2018. Rape Trials in England and Wales: Observing Justice and Rethinking Rape Myths. Switzerland: Palgrave MacMillan.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, O. 2019. “Narratives, Credibility and Adversarial Justice in English and Welsh Rape Trials.” In Andersson, U., Edgren, M., Karlsson, L. and Nilsson, G. (eds) Rape Narratives in Motion. Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. P71.
   Google Scholar
• Vik, B. F., K. Rasmussen, B. Schei, and C. T. Hagemann. 2020. “Is Police Investigation of Rape Biased by Characteristics of Victims?” Forensic Science International. Synergy 2: 98–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsisyn.2020.02.003
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ward, T. 2009. “Usurping the Role of the Jury: Expert Evidence and Witness Credibility in English Criminal Trials.” The International Journal of Evidence & Proof 13 (2): 83–101. https://doi.org/10.1350/ijep.2009.13.2.314
   Google Scholar
• Williams, P. 2020. “It All Sounds Very Interesting, but We’re Just Too Busy!’: exploring Why ‘Gatekeepers’ Decline Access to Potential Research Participants with Learning Disabilities.” European Journal of Special Needs Education 35 (1): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2019.1687563
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar