References
- Adamson, S. J., Kay-Lambkin, F. J., Baker, A. L., Lewin, T. J., Thornton, L., Kelly, B. J., & Sellman, J. D. (2010). An improved brief measure of cannabis misuse: The Cannabis Use Disorders Identification Test-Revised (CUDIT-R). Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 110(1-2), 137–143. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.02.017
- Beletsky, L., Heller, D., Jenness, S. M., Neaigus, A., Gelpi-Acosta, C., & Hagan, H. (2014). Syringe access, syringe sharing, and police encounters among people who inject drugs in New York City: A community-level perspective. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 25(1), 105–111. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.06.005
- Bennett, D., Larkin, D. (n.d). Project inclusion: Confronting anti-homeless and anti-substance user stimga in British Columbia. Pivot Legal Society. https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/pivotlegal/pages/1986/attachments/original/1543969275/project-inclusion-digital.pdf?1543969275
- Benoit, C., Smith, M., Jansson, M., Magnus, S., Ouellet, N., Atchison, C., Casey, L., Phillips, R., Reimer, B., Reist, D., & Shaver, F. (2016). Lack of confidence in police creates a “blue ceiling”. Canadian Public Policy, 42(4), 456–413. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3138/cpp.2016-006
- Bowling, B., & Phillips, C. (2007). Disproportionate and discriminatory: Reviewing the evidence on police stop and search. Modern Law Review, 70(6), 936–961. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2230.2007.00671.x
- Boyd, J., Richardson, L., Anderson, S., Kerr, T., Small, W., & McNeil, R. (2018). Transitions in income generation among marginalized people who use drugs: A qualitative study on recycling and vulnerability to violence. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 59, 36–43. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.06.014
- Bradford, B. (2014). Policing and social identity: procedural justice, inclusion and cooperation between police and public. Policing and society, 24, 22–43. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2012.724068
- Brown, R. A. (2005). Black, white, and unequal: Examining situational determinants of arrest decisions from police–suspect encounters. Criminal Justice Studies, 18(1), 51–68. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/14786010500071121
- Browning, S. L., Cullen, F. T., Cao, L., & Kopache, R. (1994). Race and getting hassled by the police: A research note. Police Studies: The International Review of Police Development, 17(1), 1–12.
- Bungay, V., Johnson, J. L., Varcoe, C., & Boyd, S. (2010). Women’s health and use of crack cocaine in context: structural and ‘everyday’ violence. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 21(4), 321–329. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.12.008
- Bush, K., Kivlahan, D. R., McDonell, M. B., Fihn, S. D., & Bradley, K. A. (1998). The AUDIT alcohol consumption questions (AUDIT-C): An effective brief screening test for problem drinking. Ambulatory Care Quality Improvement Project (ACQUIP). Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test. Archives of Internal Medicine, 158(16), 1789–1795. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.158.16.1789
- Card, K. G., Selfridge, M., Greer, A. M., Hepburn, K. J., Fournier, A. B., Sorge, J., Urbanoski, K., Pauly, B., Benoit, C., Lachowsky, N. J., & Macdonald, S. (2020). Event-level outcomes of police interactions with young people in three non-metropolitan cities across British Columbia. International Journal of Drug Policy, 102824. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102824
- Clifasefi, S. L., Lonczak, H. S., & Collins, S. E. (2017). Seattle’s Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion (LEAD) Program: Within-subjects changes on housing, employment, and income/benefits outcomes and associations with recidivism. Crime & Delinquency, 63(4), 429–445. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128716687550
- Collins, A. B., Boyd, J., Mayer, S., Fowler, A., Kennedy, M. C., Bluthenthal, R. N., Kerr, T., & McNeil, R. (2019). Policing space in the overdose crisis: A rapid ethnographic study of the impact of law enforcement practices on the effectiveness of overdose prevention sites. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 73, 199–207. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.08.002
- Cooper, H., Moore, L., Gruskin, S., & Krieger, N. (2005). The impact of a police drug crackdown on drug injectors’ ability to practice harm reduction: A qualitative study. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 61(3), 673–684. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.12.030
- Crutchfield, R. D., Skinner, M. L., Haggerty, K. P., McGlynn, A., & Catalano, R. F. (2012). Racial disparity in police contacts. Race and Justice, 2(3), 179–202. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/2153368712448063
- Dwyer, A. (2 011). ‘It’s not like we’re going to jump them’: How transgressing heteronormativity shapes police interactions with LGBT young people. Youth Justice, 11(3), 203–220. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1473225411420526
- Fine, M., Freudenberg, N., Payne, Y., Perkins, T., Smith, K., & Wanzer, K. (2003). Anything Can Happen With Police Around”: Urban Youth Evaluate Strategies of Surveillance in Public Places. Journal of Social Issues, 59(1), 141–158. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.t01-1-00009
- Gaetz, S. (2004). Safe streets for whom? Homeless youth, social exclusion, and criminal victimization. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 46(4), 423–456. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.46.4.423
- Gaines, T. L., Beletsky, L., Arredondo, J., Werb, D., Rangel, G., Vera, A., & Brouwer, K. (2015). Examining the spatial distribution of law enforcement encounters among people who inject drugs after implementation of Mexico’s drug policy reform. Journal of Urban Health : bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 92(2), 338–351. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-014-9907-2
- Greer, A., Sorge, J., Sharpe, K., Bear, D., & Macdonald, S. (2018). Police encounters and experiences among youths and adults who use drugs: Qualitative and quantitative findings of a cross-sectional study in Victoria, British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 60(4), 478–504. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.2017-0044.r1
- Hayashi, K., Small, W., Csete, J., Hattirat, S., & Kerr, T. (2013). Experiences with policing among people who inject drugs in Bangkok, Thailand: A qualitative study. PLoS Medicine, 10(12), e1001570. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001570
- Hermer, J., & Mosher, J. E. (2002). Disorderly people: Law and the politics of exclusion in Ontario. https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/faculty_books/180
- Herring, C., Yarbrough, D., & Marie Alatorre, L. (2020). Pervasive penality: How the criminalization of poverty perpetuates homelessness. Social Problems, 67(1), 131–149. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spz004
- Hosmer, D. W., Jr, Lemeshow, S., & Sturdivant, R. X. (2013). Applied logistic regression (Vol. 398). John Wiley & Sons.
- Ivsins, A., Benoit, C., Kobayashi, K., & Boyd, S, Vancouver Area Network of Drug Users. (2019). From risky places to safe spaces: Re-assembling spaces and places in Vancouver’s Downtown Eastside. Health & Place, 59, 102164. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2019.102164
- Kammersgaard, T. (2019). Harm reduction policing: From drug law enforcement to protection. Contemporary Drug Problems, 46(4), 345–362. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0091450919871313
- Mcara, L., & Mcvie, S. (2005). The usual suspects?: Street-life, young people and the police. Criminal Justice, 5(1), 5–36. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1466802505050977
- McNeil, R., Cooper, H., Small, W., & Kerr, T. (2015). Area restrictions, risk, harm, and health care access among people who use drugs in Vancouver, Canada: A spatially oriented qualitative study. Health & Place, 35, 70–78. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2015.07.006
- Miller, C. L., Firestone, M., Ramos, R., Burris, S., Ramos, M. E., Case, P., Brouwer, K. C., Fraga, M. A., & Strathdee, S. A. (2008). Injecting drug users’ experiences of policing practices in two Mexican-U.S. border cities: Public health perspectives. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 19(4), 324–331. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2007.06.002
- Nadal, K. L., Quintanilla, A., Goswick, A., & Sriken, J. (2015). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer people’s perceptions of the criminal justice system: Implications for social services. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 27(4), 457–481. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2015.1085116
- O’Grady, B., Gaetz, S., & Buccieri, K. (2013). Policing street youth in Toronto. In: Youth Homelessness in Canada (pp. 335–352). Canadian Homelessness Research Network Press.
- O’Grady, B., Gaetz, S., Buccieri, K. (2011). Can I see your ID? The policing of youth homelessness in Toronto. Canadian Homelessness Research Network. http://yorkspace.library.yorku.ca/xmlui/handle/10315/29377
- Pan, S. W., Christian, C. W. M., Pearce, M. E., Blair, A. H., Jongbloed, K., Zhang, H., Teegee, M., Thomas, V., Schechter, M. T., & Spittal, P. M. (2013). The Cedar Project: Impacts of policing among young Aboriginal people who use injection and non-injection drugs in British Columbia, Canada. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 24(5), 449–459. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.04.009
- Pinedo, M., Burgos, J. L., Ojeda, A. V., FitzGerald, D., & Ojeda, V. D. (2015). The role of visual markers in police victimization among structurally vulnerable persons in Tijuana, Mexico. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 26(5), 501–508. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2014.08.019
- Radford, K., Hamilton, J., & Jarman, N. (2005). It’s their word against mine’: young people’s attitudes to the police complaints procedure in Northern Ireland. Children & Society, 19(5), 360–370. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/chi.844
- Reid, P., & Klee, H. (1 999). Young homeless people and service provision. Health & Social Care in the Community, 7(1), 17–24. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2524.1999.00152.x
- Rhodes, T. (2002). The ‘risk environment’: A framework for understanding and reducing drug-related harm. International Journal of Drug Policy, 13(2), 85–94. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0955-3959(02)00007-5
- Sadler, J. (2008). Implementing the youth’anti-social behaviour’agenda: policing the ashton estate. Youth Justice, 8(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1473225407087042
- Sarang, A., Rhodes, T., Sheon, N., & Page, K. (2010). Policing drug users in Russia: Risk, fear, and structural violence. Substance Use & Misuse, 45(6), 813–864. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3109/10826081003590938
- Selfridge, M., Card, K. G., Greer, A., Ferencz, S., Lachowsky, N., & Macdonald, S. (2019). Respondent-driven sampling with youth who use drugs: A mixed methods assessment. Contemporary Drug Problems, 46(4), 363–378. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0091450919885412
- Selfridge, M., Greer, A., Card, K. G., Macdonald, S., & Pauly, B. (2020). “It’s like super structural” – Overdose experiences of youth who use drugs and police in three non-metropolitan cities across British Columbia. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 76, 102623. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.102623
- Small, W., Kerr, T., Charette, J., Schechter, M. T., & Spittal, P. M. (2006). Impacts of intensified police activity on injection drug users: Evidence from an ethnographic investigation. International Journal of Drug Policy, 17(2), 85–95. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2005.12.005
- Solis, C., Portillos, E. L., & Brunson, R. K. (2009). Latino youths’ experiences with and perceptions of involuntary police encounters. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 623(1), 39–51. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716208330487
- Sunshine, J., & Tyler, T. R. (2003). The Role of Procedural Justice and Legitimacy in Shaping Public Support for Policing. Law Society Review, 37(3), 513–548. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-5893.3703002
- Ti, L., Wood, E., Shannon, K., Feng, C., & Kerr, T. (2013). Police confrontations among street-involved youth in a Canadian setting. International Journal of Drug Policy, 24(1), 46–51. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2012.06.008
- Waddington, P. A. J., Stenson, K., Don &, D. (2004). In proportion: Race, and police stop and search. British Journal of Criminology, 44(6), 889–914. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azh042
- Warren, P., Tomaskovic‐Devey, D., Smith, W., Zingraff, M., & Mason, M. (2006). Driving while Black: Bias processes and racial disparity in police stops. Criminology, 44(3), 709–738. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00061.x
- Watson, T. M., Barnaby, L., Bayoumi, A. M., Challacombe, L., Wright, A., & Strike, C. (2020). ‘This is a health service. Leave it alone’: Service user and staff views on policing boundaries involving supervised consumption services. Addiction Research & Theory. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/16066359.2020.1730821
- Watson, T. M., Bayoumi, A. M., Hopkins, S., Wright, A., Naraine, R., Khorasheh, T., Challacombe, L., & Strike, C. (2018). Creating and sustaining cooperative relationships between supervised injection services and police: A qualitative interview study of international stakeholders. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 61, 1–6. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.08.001
- Weitzer, R., & Brunson, R. K. (2009). Strategic responses to the police among inner-city youth. The Sociological Quarterly, 50(2), 235–256. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2009.01139.x
- Weitzer, R., & Tuch, S. A. (1999). Race, class, and perceptions of discrimination by the police. Crime & Delinquency, 45(4), 494–507. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128799045004006
- Werb, D., Wood, E., Small, W., Strathdee, S., Li, K., Montaner, J., & Kerr, T. (2008). Effects of police confiscation of illicit drugs and syringes among injection drug users in Vancouver. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 19(4), 332–338. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2007.08.004
- White, R. (1996). No-go in the fortress city: Young people, inequality and space.
- WHO. Assist V3.0. (n.d.). World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/activities/assist_v3_english.pdf?ua=1
- Wortley, S., & Owusu-Bempah, A. (2011). The usual suspects: Police stop and search practices in Canada. Policing and Society, 21(4), 395–407. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2011.610198