High time for the development of gendered interventions to prevent young people driving after cannabis use: evidence from Canada’s National Cannabis Survey

References

• Aitken, C., Kerger, M., & Crofts, N. (2000). Drivers who use illicit drugs: Behaviour and perceived risks. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 7(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/dep.7.1.39.50
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albery, I. P., Strang, J., Gossop, M., & Griffiths, P. (2000). Illicit drugs and driving: Prevalence, beliefs and accident involvement among a cohort of current out-of-treatment drug users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 58(1–2), 197–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-8716(99)00101-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armentano, P. (2013). Cannabis and psychomotor performance: A rational review of the evidence and implications for public policy. Drug Testing and Analysis, 5(1), 52–56. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.1404
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asbridge, M., Hayden, J. A., & Cartwright, J. L. (2012). Acute cannabis consumption and motor vehicle collision risk: Systemic review of observational studies and meta-analysis. BMJ, 344(feb09 2), e536–e536. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.e536
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Beirness, D. J., & Porath, A. J. (2019). Clearing the smoke on cannabis: Cannabis use and driving – an update. Canadian Centre on Substance Use and Addiction (CCSA). Retrieved September 28, 2020 from https://www.ccsa.ca/sites/default/files/2019-04/CCSA-Cannabis-Use-Driving-Report-2017-en.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Beirness, D. J. (2018). Alcohol and drug use by drivers in British Columbia: Findings from the 2018 Roadside Survey. Beirness & Associates, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Beirness, D. J., & Beasley, E. E. (2018). Alcohol and drug use by drivers in Ontario: Findings from the 2017 roadside survey. Beirness & Associates, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Blake, S., Amaro, H., Schwartz, P. M., & Flinchbaugh, L. J. (2001). A review of substance abuse prevention interventions for young adolescent girls. Journal of Early Adolescence, 21(3), 294–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431601021003003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brubacher, J. R., Chan, H., & Staples, J. A. (2020). Cannabis-impaired driving and Canadian youth. Paediatrics & Child Health, 25(Suppl 1), S21–S25. https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/pxaa017
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brubacher, J. R., Chan, H., Martz, W., Schreiber, W., Mark, A., Eppler, J., Lund, A., Macdonald, S., Drummer, O., Pursell, R., Andolfatto, G., Mann, R., & Brant, R. (2016). Prevalence of alcohol and drug use in injured British Columbia drivers. BMJ, 6(3), e009278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buil-Gil, D., Moretti, A., & Langton, S. H. (2022). The accuracy of crime statistics: Assessing the impact of police data bias on geographic crime analysis. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 18(3), 515–541. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-021-09457-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butters, J. E. (2004). The impact of peers and social disapproval on high-risk cannabis use: Gender differences and implications for drug education. Drugs: education, Prevention and Policy, 11(5), 381–390. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687630410001704437
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canadian Centre on Substance Use and Addiction (CCSA) (2020). Canadian drug summary: Cannabis. CCSA. Retrieved October 10, 2020 from https://www.ccsa.ca/sites/default/files/2020-08/CCSA-Canadian-Drug-Summary-Cannabis-2020-en.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Capler, R., Bilsker, D., Van Pelt, K., & MacPherson, D. (2017). Cannabis use and driving: Evidence review. Canadian Drug Policy Coalition (CDPC) and Simon Fraser University.
   Google Scholar
• Cartwright, J., & Asbridge, M. (2011). Passengers’ decisions to ride with a driver under the influence of either alcohol or cannabis. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 72(1), 86–95. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2011.72.86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Croisant, S. A. P., Laz, T. H., Rahman, M., & Berenson, A. B. (2013). Gender differences in risk behaviours among high school youth. Global Advances in Health and Medicine, 2(5), 16–22. https://doi.org/10.7453/gahmj.2013.045
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dahl, S. L., & S. Sandberg. (2015). Female cannabis users and new masculinities: The gendering of cannabis use. Sociology, 49(4), 696–711. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038514547896
   Google Scholar
• Du Rose, N. (2015). The governance of female drug users: Women’s experiences of drug policy. Policy Press.
   Google Scholar
• Faggiano, F., Vigna-Taglianti, F. D., Versino, E., Zambon, A., Borraccino, A., & Lemma, P. (2008). School-based prevention for illicit drugs use: A systematic review. Preventive Medicine, 46(5), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.11.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farrugia, A. (2017). Gender, reputation and regret: The ontological politics of Australian drug education. Gender and Education, 29(3), 281–298. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2016.1156655
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer, B., Ivsins, A., Rehm, J., Webster, C., Rudzinski, K., Rodopoulos, J., & Patra, J. (2014). Factors associated with high-frequency cannabis use and driving among a multi-site sample of university students in Ontario. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 56(2), 185–200. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.2014.ES03
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer, Benedikt, Russell, C., Sabioni, P., van den Brink, W., Le Foll, B., Hall, W., Rehm, J., & Room, R.. (2017). Lower-risk cannabis use guidelines: A comprehensive update of evidence and recommendations. American Journal of Public Health. 107(8): e1–e12. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2017.303818
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer, B., Robinson, T., Bullen, C., Curran, V., Jutras-Aswad, D., Medina-Mora, M. E., Pacula, R. L., Rehm, J., Room, R., van den Brink, W., & Hall, W. (2021). Lower-risk cannabis use guidelines (LRCUG) for reducing health harms from non-medical cannabis use: A comprehensive evidence and recommendations update. International journal of drug policy, 99.
   Google Scholar
• Furlong, A. (2009). Reconceptualizing youth and young adulthood. In Andy Furlong (Ed.), Handbook of youth and young adulthood: New perspectives and agendas (pp. 1–2). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Galaif, E. R., Newcomb, M. D., Vega, W. A., & Krell, R. D. (2007). Protective and risk influences of drug use among a multiethnic sample of adolescent boys. Journal of Drug Education, 37(3), 249–276. https://doi.org/10.2190/DE.37.3.c
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghosh, T. S., Vigil, D. I., Maffey, A., Tolliver, R., Van Dyke, M., Kattari, L., Krug, H., Reed, J. K., & Wolk, L. (2017). Lessons learned after three years of legalized, recreational marijuana: The Colorado experience. Preventive Medicine, 104, 4–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.02.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Girgis, J., Pringsheim, T., Williams, J., Shafiq, S., & Patten, S. (2020). Cannabis use and internalizing/externalizing symptoms in youth: a Canadian population-based study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 67(1), 26–32.
   Google Scholar
• Glover, C. (2017). Kourtroom kush: New RIDE campaign uses pot lingo to warn about driving stoned. CBC, November 29. Retrieved March 21, 2021 from: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/kourtroom-kush-new-ride-campaign-uses-pot-lingo-to-warn-about-driving-stoned-1.4423692
   Google Scholar
• Goodman, S. E., Leos-Toro, C., & Hammond, D. (2019). Risk perceptions of cannabis- vs. alcohol-impaired driving among Canadian young people. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 27(3), 205–212.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Government of Canada (2017). Don’t drive high: Public awareness campaign launches today. Government of Canada, December 5. Retrieved October 1, 2020 from: https://www.canada.ca/en/public-safety-canada/news/2017/12/don_t_drive_highpublicawarenesscampaignlaunchestoday.html
   Google Scholar
• Government of Canada (2018). Legislative background: Reforms to the transportation provisions of the Criminal Code (Bill C-46). Government of Canada, August 30. Retrieved January 21, 2021 from: https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/cj-jp/sidl-rlcfa/c46/p3.html
   Google Scholar
• Greaves, L., & Hemsing, N. (2020). Sex and gender interactions on the use and impact of recreational cannabis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(2), 509. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020509
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenfield, S. F., Brooks, A. J., Gordon, S. M., Green, C. A., Kropp, F., McHugh, R. K., Lincoln, M., Hien, D., & Miele, G. M. (2007). Substance abuse treatment entry, retention, and outcome in women: A review of the literature. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 86(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.05.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guthrie, B., & Flinchbaugh, L. (2001). Gender-specific substance prevention programming: Going beyond just focusing on girls. Journal of Early Adolescence, 21(3), 354–372. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431601021003005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haines, R. J., Johnson, J. L., Carter, C. I., & Arora, K. (2009). “I couldn’t say, I’m not a girl” – adolescents talk about gender and marijuana use. Social Science & Medicine, 68(11), 2029–2036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.03.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haines-Saah, R. J., Mitchell, S., Slemon, A., & Jenkins, E. K. (2019). Parents are the best prevention? Troubling assumptions in cannabis policy and prevention discourses in the context of legalization in Canada. International Journal of Drug Policy, 68, 132–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.06.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison, L. D. (1995). The validity of self-reported data on drug use. Journal of Drug Issues, 25(1), 91–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/002204269502500107
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartman, R. L., & Huestis, M. A. (2013). Cannabis effects on driving skills. Clinical Chemistry, 59(3), 478–492. https://doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2012.194381
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hathaway, A. D., Comeau, N. C., & Erickson, P. G. (2011). Cannabis normalization and stigma: contemporary practices of moral regulation. Criminology & Criminal Justice, 11(5), 451–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895811415345
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hathaway, A. (2019). Evidence-based policy development for cannabis? Insights on preventing use by youth. Canadian Public Administration, 62(4), 593–611. https://doi.org/10.1111/capa.12350
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Health Canada. (2017). Canadian Cannabis Survey 2017: Summary of results. Government of Canada. Retrieved October 15, 2020 from https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/publications/drugs-health-products/canadian-cannabis-survey-2017-summary.html
   Google Scholar
• Hemsing, N., & Greaves, L. (2020). Gender norms, roles and relations and cannabis-use patterns: A scoping review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(3), 947–977. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17030947
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herrera, C. M., & Boxer, P. (2019). The role of gender in risk for substance use among justice-involved youth. Children and Youth Services Review, 100, 485–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.03.023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huestis, M. (2015). Deterring driving under the influence of cannabis. Addiction, 110(11), 1697–1698. 1697-1698. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, A. W., Holmgren, A., & Kugelberg, F. C. (2008). Driving under the influence of cannabis: A 10-year study of age and gender differences in the concentrations of tetrahydrocannabinol in blood. Addiction, 103(3), 452–461. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.02091.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, C., Donnelly, N., Swift, W., & Weatherburn, D. (2006). Preventing cannabis users from driving under the influence of cannabis. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 38(5), 854–861.
   Google Scholar
• King, K. A., Vidourek, R. A., Love, J., Wegley, S., & Alles-White, M. (2008). (19-24). Teaching adolescents safe driving and passenger behaviors: Effectiveness of the you hold the key teen driving countermeasure. Journal of Safety Research, 39(1), 19–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2007.10.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kozak, T., Ion, A., & Greene, S. (2020). Reimagining research with pregnant women and parents who consume cannabis in the era of legalization: The value of integrating intersectional feminist participatory action approaches. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research early online.
   Google Scholar
• Kumpfer, K. L., Smith, P., & J. F. Summerhays. (2008). A wakeup call to the prevention field: are prevention programs for substance use effective for girls? Substance Use & Misuse, 43(8-9), 978–1001.
   Google Scholar
• Leadbeater, B. J., Foran, K., & Grove-White, A. (2008). How much can you drink before driving? The influence of riding with impaired adults and peers on the driving behaviours of urban and rural youth. Addiction, 103(4), 629–637. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02139.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, C.-R., Lee, A., Goodman, S., Hammond, D., & Fischer, B. (2020). The lower-risk cannabis use guidelines’ (LRCUG) recommendations: How are Canadian cannabis users complying? Preventive Medicine Reports, 20, 101187–101187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2020.101187
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lewis, M. (2007). Stepwise versus hierarchical regression: Pros and cons. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Southwest Educational Association, USA. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235464734_Stepwise_versus_hierarchical_regression_Pros_and_cons
   Google Scholar
• Lize, S. E., Iachini, A. L., Tang, W., Tucker, J., Seay, K. D., Clone, S., DeHart, D., & Browne, T. (2017). A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of interactive middle school cannabis prevention programs. Prevention Science : The Official Journal of the Society for Prevention Research, 18(1), 50–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-016-0723-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long, J. S., & Freese, J. (2014). Models for binary outcomes: Interpretation. In Regression models for categorical dependent variables using Stata (pp. 227–308). Stata Press.
   Google Scholar
• Love, M., Wilton, R., & DeVerteuil, G. (2012). ‘You have to make a new way of life’: Women’s drug treatment programmes as therapeutic landscapes in Canada. Gender, Place & Culture, 19(3), 382–396. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2011.609985
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahalik, J. R., McPherran Lombardi, C., Sims, J., Coley, R. L., & Lynch, A. D. (2015). Gender, male-typicality, and social norms predicting adolescent alcohol intoxication and marijuana use. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 143, 71–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.08.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahalik, J. R., Levine Coley, R., McPherran Lombardi, C., Doyle Lynch, A., Markowitz, A. J., & Jaffee, S. R. (2013). Changes in health risk behaviours for males and females from early adolescence through early adulthood. Health Psychology : Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association, 32(6), 685–694. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031658
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minaker, L. M., Bonham, A., Elton-Marshall, T., Leos-Toro, C., Wild, T. C., & Hammond, D. (2017). Under the influence: Examine of prevalence and correlates of alcohol and marijuana consumption in relation to youth driving and passenger behaviours in Canada. A cross-sectional study. CMAJ Open, 5(2), E386–E394. https://doi.org/10.9778/cmajo.20160168
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• O’Kane, C. J., Tutt, D. C., & Bauer, L. A. (2002). Cannabis and driving: A new perspective. Emergency Medicine Australasia, 14(3), 296–303. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1442-2026.2002.00347.x
   Google Scholar
• O’Malley, P. (2004). Risking drug use. In P. O’Malley (Eds.), Risk, uncertainty and government (pp. 155–171). Glasshouse Press.
   Google Scholar
• Parker, H., Aldridge, J., & Measham, F. (1998). Illegal leisure: The normalization of adolescent recreational drug use. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Parker, H., Williams, L., & Aldridge, J. (2002). The normalization of ‘sensible’ recreational drug use: further evidence from the North West England longitudinal study. Sociology, 36(4), 941–964. https://doi.org/10.1177/003803850203600408
   Google Scholar
• Pearson, G. (2001). Normal drug use: Ethnographic fieldwork among an adult network of recreational drug users in Inner London. Substance Use & Misuse, 36(1–2), 167–200. https://doi.org/10.1081/JA-100000234
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramaekers, J. G., Berghaus, G., van Laar, M., & Drummer, O. H. (2004). Dose related risk of motor vehicle crashes after cannabis use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 73(2), 109–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2003.10.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramaekers, J. G., Moeller, M. R., van Ruitenbeek, P., Theunissen, E. L., Schneider, E., & Kauert, G. (2006). Cognition and motor control as a function of Δ 9-THC concentration in serum and oral fluid: Limits of impairment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 85(2), 114–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.03.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogeberg, O., & Elvik, R. (2016). The effects of cannabis intoxication on motor vehicle collision revisited and revised. Society for the Study of Addiction, 111(8), 1348–1359. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13347
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rotermann, M. (2020). What has changed since cannabis was legalized? Health Reports, 31(2), 11–20. https://doi.org/10.25318/82-003-x202000200002-eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santaella-Tenorio, J., Wheeler-Martin, K., DiMaggio, C. J., Castillo-Carniglia, A., Keyes, K. M., Hasin, D., & Cerdá, M. (2020). Association of recreational cannabis laws in Colorado and Washington state with changes in traffic fatalities, 2005–2017. JAMA Internal Medicine, 180(8), 1061–1068. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.1757
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soole, D. W., Mazerolle, L., & Rombouts, S. (2008). School-based drug prevention programs: A review of what works. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 41(2), 259–286. https://doi.org/10.1375/acri.41.2.259
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swift, W., Jones, C., & Donnelly, N. (2010). Cannabis use while driving: A descriptive study of Australian cannabis users. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 17(5), 573–586. https://doi.org/10.3109/09687630903264286
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tefft, B. C., Arnold, L. S., & Grabowski, J. G. (2016). Prevalence of marijuana involvement in fatal crashes: Washington, 2010–2014). AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety. Retrieved October 5, 2019, from https://aaafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/PrevalenceOfMarijuanaInvolvement.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, N., & Bull, M. (2018). Representations of women and drug use in policy: A critical policy analysis. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 56, 30–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.02.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson, T. M., & Erickson, P. G. (2019). Cannabis legalization in Canada: How might ‘strict’ regulation impact youth? Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 26(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2018.1482258
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wettlaufer, A., Florica, R. O., Asbridge, M., Beirness, D., Brubacher, J., Callaghan, R., Fischer, B., Gmel, G., Imtiaz, S., Mann, R. E., McKiernan, A., & Rehm, J. (2017). Estimating the harms and costs of cannabis-attributable collisions in the Canadian provinces. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 173, 185–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.12.024
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Will, K. E., & Sabo, C. S. (2010). Reinforcing Alcohol Prevention (RAP) Program: A secondary school curriculum to combat underage drinking and impaired driving. Journal of Alcohol & Drug Education, 54(1), 14–36.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, L. (2016). Muddy waters?: Reassessing the dimensions of the normalization thesis in twenty-first century Britain. Drugs, Education, Prevention and Policy, 23(3), 190–201. https://doi.org/10.3109/09687637.2016.1148118
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeh, M.-Y., Chiang, I.-C., & Huang, S.-Y. (2006). Gender differences in predictors of drinking behavior in adolescents. Addictive Behaviors, 31(10), 1929–1938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.12.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar