Microbial Eco-system of the Gastro-intestinal Tract of Wild Herbivorous Animals

References

• Aagnes , T. H. , Sormo , W. and Mathiesen , S. D. 1995 . Ruminal microbial digestion in free-living, in captive lichen-fed and in starved rein deer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in winter . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 61 : 583 – 591 .
   Google Scholar
• Agarwal , N. , Kamra , D. N. , Kewalramani , N. and Pathak , N. N. 1996 . Effect of feeding maize grain with berseem on enzyme activity and ciliate protozoa in the rumen of blackbuck . International J. Anim. Sci. , 11 : 21 – 23 .
   Google Scholar
• Agarwal , N. , Kewalramani , N. , Kamra , D. N. , Agrawal , D. K. and Nath , K. 1991 . Hydrolytic enzymes of buffalo rumen: Comparison of cell free rumen fluid, bacterial and protozoal fractions . Buffalo J. , 7 : 203 – 207 .
   Google Scholar
• Agarwal , N. , Kewalramani , N. , Sawal , R. K. , Kamra , D. N. and Pathak , N. N. 1993 . Effect of feeding oat and berseem on rumen enzymes of blackbuck . Indian J. Anim. Nutr. , 10 : 53 – 55 .
   Google Scholar
• Aswegen , G. V. , Schoeman , J. H. , Vos De , V. and van Noorden , S. 1994 . The oesophagus and stomach of the African elephant: a histological, immunocytochemical and immunofluorescence study . Ondersteepoort J. Vet. Res. , 61 : 223 – 228 .
   Google Scholar
• Baker , S. K. , Dehority , B. A. , Chamberlain , N. L. and Purser , D. B. 1995 . Inability of protozoa from the kangaroos forestomach to establish in the rumen of sheep . Anim. Zootechnie , 44 : 143
   Google Scholar
• Barr , M. E.J. , Mann , S. O. , Richardson , A. J. , Stewart , C. S. and Wallace , R. J. 1980 . Establishment of ureolytic staphylococci in the rumen of gnotobiotic lambs . J. Appl. Bact. , 49 : 325 – 330 .
   Google Scholar
• Brooker , J. D. , O-Donovan , L. A. , Skene , I. , Clarke , K. , Blackall , L. and Muslera , P. 1994 . Streptococcus caprinus sp. nov., a tannin-resistant ruminal bacterium from feral goats . Letters Appl. Microbiol. , 18 : 313 – 318 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cameron , S. , O-Donoghue , P. and Adlard , R. 2000 . First record of Cycloposthium edentatum Strelkow, 1928 from the black-stripped wallaby, Macropus dorsalis . Parasitology Res. , 86 : 158 – 162 .
   Google Scholar
• Chaudhary , L. C. , Kamra , D. N. , Singh , R. , Agarwal , N. and Pathak , N. N. 2000 . Effect of feeding bentonité on rumen fermentation, enzyme activity and protozoal population in adult buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) . Buffalo J. , 16 : 73 – 79 .
   Google Scholar
• Clemens , E. T. and Maloiy , G. M.O. 1983 . Nutrient digestibility and gastrointestinal electrolytes flux in the elephant and rhinoceros . Comp. Biochem. Physiol , 75 : 653 – 658 .
   Google Scholar
• Dehority , B. A. 1994 . Rumen ciliate protozoa of the blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola), with observations on morphological variations lines within the species Entodinium dubardi . J. Eukaryotic Microbiol. , 41 : 103 – 111 .
   Google Scholar
• Dehority , B. A. 1995 . Rumen ciliates of the pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virgianus) and elk (Ceruus canadensis) in the northwestern united states . Archiv fur Protistenkunde , 146 : 29 – 36 .
   Google Scholar
• Dehority , B. A. 1996 . A new family of Entodinimorph protozoa from the marsupial forestomach, with description of a new genus and five new new species . J. Eukaryotic Microbiol. , 43 : 285 – 295 .
   Google Scholar
• Dogiel , V. A. 1934 . Angaben über die Ophryoscolecidae des Wildschafes aus Kamtschatka des Elches und des Yaks, nebst deren Zoogeographischen Verwertung . Arch. Protistenkd. , 82 : 290 – 297 .
   Google Scholar
• Drake , B. 1943 . Untersuchungen uber einige polysaccharide der Flechten, vornehmlich das Lichenin und das neuentdeekte Pustulin . Biochem. Z. , 313 : 388 – 399 .
   Google Scholar
• Dubost , G. 1986 . “ Tragulidae ” . In The Encyclopedia of animals , Edited by: Mac Donald , D. W. vol. 4 , 72 – 73 . Tokyo : Heibonsha Ltd. Publ. .
   Google Scholar
• Foose , T. J. 1982 . Tropic strategies of ruminants versus non-ruminants ungulates , Thesis University Chicago .
   Google Scholar
• Ghosal , A. K. , Tanwar , R. K. and Dwarakanath , P. K. 1981 . Note on rumen microorganisms and fermentation pattern in camel . Indian J. Anim. Sci. , 51 : 1011 – 1012 .
   Google Scholar
• Giesecke , D. and Gylswyk , N. V. 1975 . A study of feeding types and certain rumen functions in six species of East African wild ruminants . J. Agril. Sci. , 85 : 75 – 83 .
   Google Scholar
• Guirong , Su N. , Hua , Z. , Se , Z. , Imai , S. , Su , N. E. , Hua , Z. X. and Zhu , S. 2000 . Rumen ciliated protozoan fauna of the yak (Bos grunniens) in China with the description of Entodinium monuo n. sp . J. Eukaryotic Microbiol. , 47 : 178 – 182 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han , S. S. 1984 . Rumen ciliate protozoal fauna of the native cattle in Korea . Jpn. J. Zootech. Sci. , 55 : 279 – 286 .
   Google Scholar
• van Hoven , W. 1983 . A comparison of rumen function in four Kalahari ungulates . South African J. Anim. Sci. , 13 : 209 – 211 .
   Google Scholar
• Hungate , R. E. 1966 . The Rumen and its Microbes , New York : academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Imai , S. 1998 . Phylogenetic taxonomy of rumen ciliate protozoa based on their morphology and distribution . J. Appl. Anim. Res. , 13 : 17 – 36 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imai , S. and Rung , G. 1990 . Rumen ciliates from the Mongolian gazelle, Procapra gutturosa . Jap. J. Vet. Sci. , 52 : 1063 – 1067 .
   Google Scholar
• Imai , S. , Kudo , H. , Fukuta , K. , Abudullah , N. , Ho , Y. W. and Onodere , R. 1995 . Isotricha jalaludinii n. sp. Found from the rumen of lesser mouse deer, Tragulus javanicus, in Malaysia . J. Eukaryotic Microbiol , 42 : 75 – 77 .
   Google Scholar
• Imai , S. , Matsumoto , M. , Watanabe , A. and Sato , H. 1993 . Rumen ciliate protozoa in Japaneese sika deer (Cervus nippon centralis) . Anim. Sci. Technol. , 64 : 578 – 583 .
   Google Scholar
• Imai , S. , Tsutsum , Y. , Yumura , S. and Mulenga , A. 1992 . Ciliate protozoa in the rumen of Kafue lechew, Kobus leche kafuensis, in Zambia, with description for four new species . J. Protozol. , 39 : 564 – 572 .
   Google Scholar
• Ito , A. , Imai , S. and Ogimoto , K. 1994 . Rumen ciliate composition and diversity of Japanese beef black cattle in comparison with those of Holstein-Friesian cattle . J. Vet. Med. Sci. , 56 : 707 – 714 .
   Google Scholar
• Ito , A. and Imai , S. 1990 . Ciliated protozoa in the rumen of Holstein friesian cattle (Bos taurus taurus) in Hokkaido, Japan with the description of two new species . Zool. Sci. (Tokyo) , 7 : 449 – 458 .
   Google Scholar
• Jameson , A. P. 1925 . A notes on the ciliates from the stomach of mouse deer (Tragulus meminna Milue Edwards) with the descriptions of Entodinium ovalis n. sp . Parasitology , 17 : 406 – 409 .
   Google Scholar
• Kamra , D. N. and Pathak , N. N. 1996 . Nutritional Microbiology of Farm Animals , 1 – 224 . New Delhi : Vikas Publishing House .
   Google Scholar
• Kamra , D. N. , Sawal , R. K. , Pathak , N. N. , Kewalramani , N. and Agarwal , N. 1991 . Diurnal variations in ciliate protozoa in the rumen of blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) fed green forages . Letters Appl. Microbial. , 13 : 165 – 167 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kempton , T. J. , Murray , R. M. and Leng , R. A. 1976 . Methane production and digestibility measurements in the grey kangaroo and sheep . Aust. J. Biol. Sci. , 29 : 209 – 214 .
   Google Scholar
• Kewalramani , N. , Sawal , R. K. , Kamra , D. N. , Agarwal , N. and Pathak , N. N. 1992 . Dry matter intake, digestibility of nutrients and some rumen constituents of blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) fed ad libitum chaffed maize fodder . International J. Anim. Sci. , 7 : 219 – 221 .
   Google Scholar
• Kleynhans , C. J. and Hoven , W. V. 1976 . Rumen protozoa of the giraffe with a description of two new species . East-African Wildlife J. , 14 : 203 – 214 .
   Google Scholar
• Kopecný , J. 1995 . “ Rumen fungi in domestic and wild herbivores ” . In Rumen Ecology—Research Planning , 103 – 120 . Ethiopia : ILRI .
   Google Scholar
• Kopecný , J. , Hodrova , B. and Stewart , C. S. 1996 . The isolation and characterization of rumen chitinolytic bacterium . Letters Appl. Microbiol. , 23 : 195 – 198 .
   Google Scholar
• Kozaki , M. , Oura , R. and Sekine , J. 1991 . Studies on digestion physiology of herbivorous feral animals. 2. The comparison of intake of total digestible nutrients among diverse sizes of ruminant and monogastric animals . J. Faculty Agril. , 27 : 61 – 68 .
   Google Scholar
• Kudo , H. , Imai , S. , Jalaludin , S. , Fukuta , K. and Cheng , K. J. Ruminants and rumen micro-organisms in tropical countries . Proceedings of a work shop held at ILRI . March. 1995 , Addis Abba, Ethiopia. pp. 65 – 89 . from 13–18
   Google Scholar
• Laukova , A. 1994 . Staphylococci associated with the rumen of young and wild ruminants . Letters Appl. Microbiol. , 19 : 26 – 27 .
   Google Scholar
• Laukova , A. 1996 . Enterococci associated with the rumen of different ruminants . Biomedical Letters , 54 : 27 – 30 .
   Google Scholar
• Leedle , J. A.Z. , Bryant , M. P. and Hespell , R. B. 1982 . Diurnal variations in bacterial numbers and fluid parameters in ruminal contents of animals fed low or high forage diets . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 44 : 402 – 412 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maloiy , G. M.O. and Clemens , E. T. 1999 . Digestive efficiency in two small wild ruminants: the dik-dik and suni antelopes . Comp. Biochem. Physiol (A) , 124 : 149 – 153 .
   Google Scholar
• Nair , V. B. and Ananthasubramaniam , C. R. 1979 . Studies on the nutritional requirements of the elephants (Elephas maximus) 1. Evaluation of the nutritive values of palm leaf (Caryota urens) . Indian Vet. J. , 56 : 667 – 671 .
   Google Scholar
• Ogimoto , K. and Imai , S. 1981 . Atlas of Rumen Microbiology , 231 Tokyo : Japan Sci. Soc. Press .
   Google Scholar
• Okamoto , M. 1997 . Comparative digestibility in several artificially fed herbivores . J. Rakuno Gakuen Univ., Natural Sci. , 22 : 155 – 157 .
   Google Scholar
• Osawa , R. 1992 . Tannin-protein complex degrading Enterobacterial isolated from the alimentary tract of koalas and selective medium for their enumeration . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 58 : 1754 – 1759 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osawa , R. and Mitsuoka , T. 1990 . Selective medium for enumeration of tannin-protein degrading Streptococcus sp. in faeces of koalas . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 56 : 3609 – 3611 .
   Google Scholar
• Osawa , R. and Sly , L. 1992 . Occurence of tannin-protein complex degrading Streptococcus in the faces of various animals . Syst. Appl. Microbiol. , 15 : 144 – 147 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pathak , N. N. , Kewalramani , N. and Kamra , D. N. 1992 . Intake and digestibility of oats (Avena sativa) and berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) in adult blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) . Small Ruminant Res. , 8 : 265 – 268 .
   Google Scholar
• Patton , R. S. and Chandler , P. T. 1975 . In vivo digestibility of evaluation of chitinous materials . J. Dairy Sci. , 58 : 397 – 403 .
   Google Scholar
• Paul , S. S. , Kamra , D. N. , Sastry , V. R.B. and Sahu , N. P. Isolation of effective lignocellulolytic anaerobic fungi from wild and domestic ruminants . Xth International Congress of Asian-Australasian Association of Animal Production Societies . September 23–29 2002 , New Delhi.
   Google Scholar
• Pellow , A. R. 1984 . Food consumption and energy budgets of the giraffe . J. Appl. Ecol. , 21 : 141 – 151 .
   Google Scholar
• Purohit , M. S. and Rathore , S. S. 1962 . Stomach of the camel in relation to that of the ox . Indian Vet. J. , 39 : 604
   Google Scholar
• Reed , J. D. Nutitive value of range plants, inhibitory plant compounds, and mixed species utilization. Range Lands: a resource under seige . Proc. 2nd Int. Range land Cong. May 13–18 1984 , Adelaide, Australia. pp. 394 – 397 .
   Google Scholar
• Roehrs , J. M. , Brockway , C. R. , Ross , D. V. , Reicher , T. A. and Ullrey , D. E. 1989 . Digestibility of Timothy hay in African elephants . Zool. Biol. , 8 : 331 – 351 .
   Google Scholar
• Sahu , N. P. 2002 . Studies on cellulose degrading bacteria isolated from small ruminants and their effect on nutrient utilization in buffaloes , Ph.D Thesis Izatnagar, , India : Indian Veterinary Research Institute, deemed to be University .
   Google Scholar
• Saucer , J. J.C. 1983 . A comparision between Acasia and Combrepon leaves utilized by giraffe . South Afican J. Anim. Sci. , 13 : 43 – 44 .
   Google Scholar
• Schaffer , A. L. , Young , B. A. and Chimwano , A. M. 1978 . Ration digestion and retention time of digesta in domestic cattle (Bos torus), American bison (Bison bison) and Tibetan Yak (Bos grunniens), Can . J. Zool. , 56 : 2355
   Google Scholar
• Sijtsma , L. and Tan , B. 1993 . Degradation and utilization of grass walls by anaerobic fungi isolated from yak, llama and sheep . Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. , 44 : 221 – 236 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vallenas , A. , Cumming , J. F. and Munnel , J. F. 1971 . A gross study of the compartmentalized stomach of the two new world camelids, the llama and guanaco . J. Morph. , 134 : 399
   Google Scholar
• Wallace , R. J. , Cheng , K. J. , Dinsdale , D. and Ørskov , E. R. 1979 . An independent microbial flora of the epithelium and its role in the eco-microbiology in the rumen . Nature , 279 : 424 – 426 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams , V. J. 1963 . Rumen functions in the camels . Nature , 197 : 1221
   Google Scholar