Land transformation across agroecological zones reveals expanding cropland and settlement at the expense of tree-cover and wetland areas in Nigeria

References

• Adelodun, B., K.-S. Choi, and R. Echodu. 2018. “A Review of the Evaluation of Irrigation Practice in Nigeria: Past, Present and Future Prospects.” African Journal of Agricultural Research 13 (45): 3EAF05558713. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2018.13403.
   Google Scholar
• Adenle, A. A., H. Azadi, and L. Manning. 2017. “The Era of Sustainable Agricultural Development in Africa: Understanding the Benefits and Constrains.” Food Reviews International 34 (5): 411–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2017.1300913.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adenle, A. A., S. Boillat, and C. Ifejika Speranza. 2022. “Key Dimensions of Land users’ Perceptions of Land Degradation and Sustainable Land Management in Niger State, Nigeria.” Environmental Challenges 8:100544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2022.100544.
   Google Scholar
• Akinyemi, F. O. 2013. “An Assessment of Land Use Change in the Cocoa Belt of South West Nigeria.” International Journal of Remote Sensing 34 (8): 2858–2875. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2012.753167.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akinyemi, F. O., G. Ghazaryan, and O. Dubovyk. 2021. “Assessing UN Indicators of Land Degradation Neutrality and Proportion of Degraded Land Over Botswana Using Remote Sensing Based National Level Metrics.” Land Degradation and Development 32 (1): 158–172. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.3695.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akinyemi, F. O., and C. Ifejika Speranza. 2022. “Agricultural Landscape Change Impact on the Quality of Land: An African Continent-Wide Assessment in Gained and Displaced Agricultural Lands.” International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 106:102644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2021.102644.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akinyemi, F. O., and G. Mashame. 2018. “Analysis of Land Change in the Dryland Agricultural Landscapes of Eastern Botswana.” Land Use Policy 76:798–811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.03.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akinyemi, F. O., R. G. Pontius Jr., and A. K. Braimoh. 2017. “Land Change Dynamics: Insights from Intensity Analysis Applied to an African Emerging City.” Journal of Spatial Science 62 (1): 69–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14498596.2016.1196624.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alademomi, A. S., C. J. Okolie, O. E. Daramola, S. A. Akinnusi, E. Adediran, H. O. Olanrewaju, A. O. Alabi, T. J. Salami, and J. Odumosu. 2022. “The Interrelationship Between LST, NDVI, NDBI, and Land Cover Change in a Section of Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria.” Applied Geomatics 14 (2): 299–314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12518-022-00434-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aldwaik, S., and R. G. Pontius Jr. 2012. “Intensity Analysis to Unify Measurements of Size and Stationarity of Land Changes by Interval, Category, and Transition.” Landscape and Urban Planning 106 (1): 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/13658816.2013.787618.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aldwaik, S., and R. G. Pontius Jr. 2013. “Map Errors That Could Account for Deviations from a Uniform Intensity of Land Change.” International Journal of Geographical Information Science 27 (9): 1717–1739. https://doi.org/10.1080/13658816.2013.787618.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander, P., C. Brown, A. Arneth, J. Finnigan, and M. D. A. Rounsevell. 2016. “Human Appropriation of Land for Food: The Role of Diet.” Global Environmental Change 41:88–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.09.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arowolo, A. O., and X. Deng. 2018. “Land Use/Land Cover Change and Statistical Modelling of Cultivated Land Change Drivers in Nigeria.” Regional Environmental Change 18 (1): 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1186-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aruofor, R. O. 2000. “Review and improvement of data related to wood-products in Nigeria.” EC-FAO Partnership Programme (1998-2000). Accessed May 21, 2024. https://www.fao.org/3/X6762E/X6762E00.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Azeez, O. 2018. “Once Upon a Game Reserve: Sambisa and the Tragedy of a Forested Landscape.” Arcadia Collection: National Parks in Time and Space, Spring (2). Accessed August 1, 2023. http://www.environmentandsociety.org/arcadia/once-upon-game-reserve-sambisa-and-tragedy-forested-landscape.
   Google Scholar
• Bär, V., F. O. Akinyemi, and C. Ifejika Speranza. 2023. “Land Cover Degradation in the Reference and Monitoring Periods of the SDG Land Degradation Neutrality Indicator for Switzerland.” Ecological Indicators 151:110252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2023.110252.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnieh, B. A., L. Jia, M. Menenti, M. Jiang, J. Zhou, Y. Lv, Y. Zeng, and A. Bennour. 2022. “Quantifying Spatial Reallocation of Land Use/Land Cover Categories in West Africa.” Ecological Indicators 135:108556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.108556.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouaroudj, S., A. Menad, A. Bounamous, H. Ali-Khodja, A. Gherib, D. E. Weigel, and H. Chenchouni. 2019. “Assessment of Water Quality at the Largest Dam in Algeria (Beni Haroun Dam) and Effects of Irrigation on Soil Characteristics of Agricultural Lands.” Chemosphere 219:76–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.11.193.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breiman, L. 2001. “Random Forests.” Machine Learning 45 (1): 5–32. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010933404324.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canty, M. J. 2019. “Image Analysis, Classification and Change Detection in Remote Sensing: With Algorithms for Python”. 4th ed. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
   Google Scholar
• Central Intelligence Agency. 2023. “Nigeria: The World Factbook.” [ accessed: 2023 Sept. 02]. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nigeria/.
   Google Scholar
• Cotillon, S. E., and M. L. Mathis. 2017. Mapping Land Cover Through Time with the Rapid Land Cover Mapper—Documentation and User Manual. US Geological Survey Open-File Report 1012, 23p. https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20171012.
   Google Scholar
• Cushing, W. M., G. G. Tappan, S. Herrmann, and S. E. Cotillon. 2016. “West Africa Land Use Land Cover Time Series.” Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center. https://doi.org/10.5066/F73N21JF.
   Google Scholar
• Department of Drought and Desertification Amelioration. 2018. Nigeria Final Report of the Land Degradation Neutrality Target Setting Programme. Accessed October 23, 2023. https://knowledge.unccd.int/sites/default/files/ldn_targets/Nigeria%20LDN%20TSP%20Country%20Report.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• De Sy, V., M. Herold, F. Achard, R. Beuchle, J. G. P. W. Clevers, E. Lindquist, and L. Verchot. 2015. “Land Use Patterns and Related Carbon Losses Following Deforestation in South America.” Environmental Research Letters 10 (12): 124004. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/12/124004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EAC. 2012. “Environmental and Social Impact Assessment of the Eko Atlantic Shoreline Protection and Reclamation Project a Summary.” Royal Haskoning Enhancing Society. Accessed May 21, 2024. https://www.ekoatlantic.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/EkoAtlantic-EIA-Summary.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• FAO. 2020. Land Use/Land Cover and Forest Cover Mapping in Nigeria. Abuja. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb1327en.
   Google Scholar
• Findell, K. L., A. Berg, P. Gentine, J. Krasting, B. R. Lintner, S. Malyshev, J. A. Santanello Jr., and E. Shevliakova. 2017. “The Impact of Anthropogenic Land Use and Land Cover Change on Regional Climate Extremes.” Nature Communications 8 (1): 989. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-01038-w.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Government of Nigeria. 2018. Report from Nigeria. UNCCD Performance Review and Assessment of Implementation System 7th Reporting Process. Accessed May 21, 2024. https://www.unccd.int/sites/default/files/ldn_targets/Nigeria%20LDN%20TSP%20Country%20Report.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Govers, G., R. Merckx, B. van Wesemael, and K. van Oost. 2017. “Soil Conservation in the 21st Century: Why We Need Smart Agricultural Intensification.” Soil 3 (1): 45–59. https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-3-45-2017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grigoras, G., and B. Uritescu. 2019. “Land Use/Land Cover Changes Dynamics and Their Effects on Surface Urban Heat Island in Bucharest, Romania.” International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 80:115–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2019.03.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gundlach, E. R. 2018. “Oil-Related Mangrove Loss East of Bonny River, Nigeria.” In: Makowski, C. Finkl, C. (eds.) Threats to Mangrove Forests Coastal Research Library 25.Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73016-5_13.
   Google Scholar
• Herrmann, S. M., M. Brandt, K. Rasmussen, and R. Fensholt. 2020. “Accelerating Land Cover Change in West Africa Over Four Decades as Population Pressure Increased.” Communications Earth and Environment 1 (1): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-020-00053-y.
   Google Scholar
• Huitink, C. L. 2018. Master thesis, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University. Accessed May 21, 2024. “Burning Nigerian Forests on European Barbecues: A Carbon Footprint and Cost Comparison Between Imported Nigerian Charcoal and Sustainably Produced Charcoal in the European Union.” https://studenttheses.uu.nl/handle/20.500.12932/29543.
   Google Scholar
• Ifejika Speranza, C., F. O. Akinyemi, D. Baratoux, J. Benveniste, N. Ceperley, F. Driouech, and J. Helmschrot. 2023. “Enhancing the Uptake of Earth Observation Products and Services in Africa Through a Multi-Level Transdisciplinary Approach.” Survey in Geophysics 44 (1): 7–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09724-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iloeje, N. P. 2001. A New Geography of Nigeria, 200. new revised ed. Lagos, Nigeria: Longman Nig. Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Jimoh, S. O., T. O. Muraina, S. K. Bello, and N. NourEldeen. 2020. “Emerging Issues in Grassland Ecology Research: Perspectives for Advancing Grassland Studies in Nigeria.” Acta Oecologica 106:103548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actao.2020.103548.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khwarahm, N. R. 2021. “Spatial Modeling of Land Use and Land Cover Change in Sulaimani, Iraq, Using Multitemporal Satellite Data.” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 193 (3): 148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-08959-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khwarahm, N. R., S. Qader, K. Ararat, and A. M. Fadhil Al-Quraishi. 2021. “Predicting and Mapping Land Cover/Land Use Changes in Erbil/Iraq Using CA-Markov Synergy Model.” Earth Science Informatics 14 (1): 393–406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12145-020-00541-x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Löw, F., C. Conrad, and U. Michel. 2015. “Decision Fusion and Non-Parametric Classifiers for Land Use Mapping Using Multi-Temporal RapidEye Data.” ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 108:191–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2015.07.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mack, B., P. Leinenkugel, C. Kuenzer, and S. Dech. 2017. “A Semi-Automated Approach for the Generation of a New Land Use and Land Cover Product for Germany Based on Landsat Time-Series and Lucas in-Situ Data.” Remote Sensing Letters 8 (3): 244–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/2150704X.2016.1249299.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Main-Knorn, M., B. Pflug, J. Louis, V. Debaecker, U. Müller-Wilm, and F. Gascon. 2017. “Sen2Cor for Sentinel-2.” Paper presented at the Proceedings of the Image and Signal Processing for Remote Sensing XXIII, 1042704. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2278218.
   Google Scholar
• Mbow, C., M. S. Brandt, I. Ouedraogo, J. de Leeuw, and M. Marshall. 2015. “What Four Decades of Earth Observation Tell us About Land Degradation in the Sahel?” Remote Sensing 7 (4): 4048–4067. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs70404048.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McRoberts, R. E., S. V. Stehman, G. C. Liknes, E. Næsset, C. Sannier, and B. F. Walters. 2018. “The Effects of Imperfect Reference Data on Remote Sensing Assisted Estimators of Land Cover Class Proportions.” ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 142:292–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2018.06.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molotoks, A., E. Stehfest, J. Doelman, F. Albanito, N. Fitton, T. P. Dawson, and P. Smith. 2018. “Global Projections of Future Cropland Expansion to 2050 and Direct Impacts on Biodiversity and Carbon Storage.” Global Change Biology 24 (12): 5895–5908. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mzaga, T. M., A. C. Tse, H. O. Nwankwoala, and G. J. Udom. 2021. “Evaluating the Impact of Artisanal Crude Oil Refining on Soil Properties at a Mangrove Wetland, Eastern Bonny River, Rivers State.” International Journal of Research in Engineering and Science 9 (12): 6–14.
   Google Scholar
• National Bureau of Statistics. 2022. “Nigerian Gross Domestic Product Report Q4 2021.” Accessed June 7, 2024. https://nigerianstat.gov.ng/download/1241137.
   Google Scholar
• Obiefuna, J. N., P. Nwilo, A. O. Atagbaza, and C. J. Okolie. 2013. “Land Cover Dynamics Associated with the Spatial Changes in the Wetlands of Lagos/Lekki Lagoon System of Lagos, Nigeria.” Journal of Coastal Research 29 (3): 671–679. https://doi.org/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-12-00038.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omeje, C. 2021. “Do You Know Where Your Grilling Charcoal Comes From? Nigeria’s Forests Are Being Decimated to Make Charcoal for Cookouts in Europe and the United States.” Accessed May 21, 2024. https://newrepublic.com/article/161947/nigeria-where-does-grill-charcoal-come-from.
   Google Scholar
• Onilude, O. O., and E. Vaz. 2020. “Data Analysis of Land Use Change and Urban and Rural Impacts in Lagos State, Nigeria.” Data 5 (3): 72. https://doi.org/10.3390/data5030072.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelletier, C., S. Valero, J. Inglada, N. Champion, and G. Dedieu. 2016. “Assessing the Robustness of Random Forests to Map Land Cover with High Resolution Satellite Image Time Series Over Large Areas.” Remote Sensing of Environment 187:156–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2016.10.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pesaresi, M., and P. Politis. 2023. GHS-BUILT-C R2023A - GHS Settlement Characteristics, Derived from Sentinel2 Composite (2018) and Other GHS R2023A Data. European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC). https://doi.org/10.2905/3C60DDF6-0586-4190-854B-F6AA0EDC2A30.
   Google Scholar
• Pons, X., L. Pesquer, J. Cristobal, and O. Gonzalez-Guerrero. 2014. “Automatic and Improved Radiometric Correction of Landsat Imagery Using Reference Values from MODIS Surface Reflectance Images.” International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 33:243e254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2014.06.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poortinga, A., Q. Nguyen, K. Tenneson, A. Troy, D. Saah, B. Bhandari, W. L. Ellenburg, et al. 2019. “Linking Earth Observations for Assessing the Food Security Situation in Vietnam: A Landscape Approach.” Frontiers in Environmental Science 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2019.00186.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salamatu, E. A., H. K. Ayuba, D. N. Marcus, and A. T. Ogah. 2021. “Analysis of Tree Species Preference and Reasons Among Commercial Charcoal Producers in Nasarawa State, Nigeria.” European Journal of Environment and Earth Sciences 2 (2): 24–29. https://doi.org/10.24018/ejgeo.2021.2.2.124.
   Google Scholar
• Schonlau, M., and R. Y. Zou. 2020. “The Random Forest Algorithm for Statistical Learning.” The Stata Journal: Promoting Communications on Statistics and Stata 20 (1): 3–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X20909688.
   Google Scholar
• Schouten, G., M. Vink, and S. Vellema. 2018. “Institutional Diagnostics for African Food Security: Approaches, Methods and Implications.” NJAS: Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 84 (1): 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.njas.2017.11.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sims, N. C., G. J. Newnham, J. R. England, J. Guerschman, S. J. D. Cox, S. H. Roxburgh, R. A. Viscarra Rossel, S. Fritz, and I. Wheeler. 2021. “Good Practice Guidance. SDG Indicator 15.3.1, Proportion of Land That Is Degraded Over Total Land Area.” v2.0, Bonn, Germany: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. Accessed May 21, 2024. https://www.unccd.int/resources/manuals-and-guides/good-practice-guidance-sdg-indicator-1531-proportion-land-degraded.
   Google Scholar
• Tappan, G. G., W. M. Cushing, S. E. Cotillon, M. L. Mathis, J. A. Hutchinson, and K. J. Dalsted. 2016. “West Africa Land Use Land Cover Time Series: US Geological Survey Data Release.” Accessed May 21, 2024. https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2017/3004/fs20173004.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Turubanova, S., P. V. Potapov, A. Tyukavina, and M. C. Hansen. 2018. “Ongoing Primary Forest Loss in Brazil, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Indonesia.” Environmental Research Letters 13 (7): 074028. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aacd1c.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Twongyirwe, R., M. Bithell, and K. S. Richards. 2018. “Revisiting the Drivers of Deforestation in the Tropics: Insights from Local and Key Informant Perceptions in Western Uganda.” Journal of Rural Studies 63:105–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2018.08.013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UNCCD. 2019. “Land Degradation Neutrality Transformative Projects and Programmes: Operational Guidance for Country Support.” Global Mechanism of the UNCCD, Bonn, Germany. Accessed May 21, 2024. https://catalogue.unccd.int/1224_UNCCD_LDN_TPP_technical_guide_GM.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• UNFPA. 2023. “Nigerian Population.” access: 2023 October 23. https://www.unfpa.org/data/world-population/NG.
   Google Scholar
• Van Wesenbeeck, S., L. Wang, F. Ronsse, W. Prins, Ø. Skreiberg, and M. J. Antal Jr. 2016. “Charcoal Mines in the Norwegian Woods.” Energy and Fuels 30 (10): 7959–7970. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b00919.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, L., F. Wei, and J.-C. Svenning. 2023. “Accelerated Cropland Expansion into High Integrity Forests and Protected Area.” iScience 26 (4): 106450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.106450.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, C. T., A. J. Moody, E. K. Nébié, and O. Sanon. 2017. “Ground-Truthing Sahelian Greening: Ethnographic and Spatial Evidence from Burkina Faso.” Human Ecology 45 (1): 89–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-016-9888-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winkler, K., R. Fuchs, M. Rounsevell, and M. Herold. 2021. “Global Land Use Changes are Four Times Greater Than Previously Estimated.” Nature Communications 12 (1): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22702-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Bank and OECD National Accounts data. 2023. “Agriculture % of GDP in Nigeria.” Accessed May 21, 2024. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.AGR.TOTL.ZS?view=chart&locations=NG.
   Google Scholar
• Xu, C., X. Du, Z. Yan, and X. Fan. 2020. “„ScienceEarth: A Big Data Platform for Remote Sensing Data processing”.” Remote Sensing 12:607. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12040607.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, N. E., R. S. Anderson, S. M. Chignell, A. G. Vorster, R. Lawrence, and P. H. Evangelista. 2017. “A Survival Guide to Landsat Preprocessing.” Ecology 98 (4): 920e932. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.1730.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yue, C., P. Ciais, R. A. Houghton, and A. A. Nassikas. 2020. “Contribution of Land Use to the Interannual Variability of the Land Carbon Cycle.” Nature Communications 11 (1): 3170. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-16953-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar