Paramilitary Violence in Colombia: A Multilevel Negative Binomial Analysis

References

• Álvarez, M. D. 2003. “Forests in the Time of Violence: Conservation Implications of the Colombian War.” Journal of Sustainable Forestry 16 (3–4): 49–70. doi:10.1300/J091v16n03_03.
   Google Scholar
• Arbelaez, M. A., J. J. Echavarria, and A. Gaviria. 2002. Colombian Long Run Growth and the Crisis of the 1990s. Global Development Network/Interamerican Development Bank Project on Economic Growth in Latin America and the Carribbean.Bogotá: Fedesarrollo.
   Google Scholar
• Arcaya, M., M. Brewster, C. M. Zigler, and S. V. Subramanian. 2012. “Area Variations in Health: A Spatial Multilevel Modeling Approach.” Health & Place 18 (4): 824–831. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2012.03.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arias, E. D. 2017. Criminal Enterprises and Governance in Latin America and the Caribbean. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Arjona, A. M. 2008. “Grupos Armados, Comunidades Y Ordenes Locales: Interacciones Complejas.” In  Fernán González (Ed.), Hacia La Reconstrucción Del País. Desarrollo, Política Y Territorio En Regiones Afectadas Por El Conflicto Armado, 105–167. Colombia: Cinep-Odecofi.
   Google Scholar
• Bagley, B. M. (2005). “Drug Trafficking, Political Violence, and U.S. Policy in Colombia under the Clinton Administration.” in Elusive Peace - International, National, and Local Dimensions of Conflict in Colombia (Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 21–52), edited by C. Rojas and J. Meltzer. New York, NY.
   Google Scholar
• Bai, Jushan, and Pierre Perron. 2003. “Computation and Analysis Of Multiple Structural Change Models.” Journal Of Applied Econometrics 18 (1): 1-22. doi:10.1002/(ISSN)1099-1255.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouvier, V. 2009. Colombia: Building Peace in a Time of War. Washington D.C.: USIP Press.
   Google Scholar
• Calado, F., and D. Medrano. 2006. “Prolonged Internal Displacement: Durable Solutions Amidst Violence in Colombia.” In Intra-Caribbean Migration and the Conflict Nexus, edited by T. Lesser, B. Fernández-Alfaro, L. Cowie, and N. Bruni. 230. Ottawa, Canada: Human Rights Internet.
   Google Scholar
• Carey, S. C., N. J. Mitchell, and W. Lowe. 2013. “States, the Security Sector, and the Monopoly of Violence: A New Database on Pro-Government Militias.” Journal of Peace Research 50 (2): 249–258. doi:10.1177/0022343312464881.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centro de Investigación y Educación Popular – CINEP. 2012. Minería, Conflictos Sociales Y Violación De Derechos Humanos En Colombia (Informe Especial)Bogotá, Colombia.
   Google Scholar
• Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica. CNMH. 2014. Nuevos Escenarios De Conflicto Armado Y Violencia. Panorama Posacuerdos Con AUC. Bogotá: Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica.
   Google Scholar
• Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica. CNMH. 2016. Grupos Armados Posdesmovilización (2006-2015). Trayectorias, Rupturas Y Continuidades. Bogotá: Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica.
   Google Scholar
• Chernick, M. 1988. “Negotiated Settlement to Armed Conflict: Lessons from the Colombian Peace Process.” Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 30 (4): 53–88. doi:10.2307/166057.
   Google Scholar
• Chernick, Marc W. (1998) “The Paramilitarization Of The War in Colombia” NACLA Report on the Americas 31(5): 28-33.
   Google Scholar
• Cotte Poveda, A. 2012. “Violence and Economic Development in Colombian Cities: A Dynamic Panel Data Analysis.” Journal of International Development 24 (7): 809–827. doi:10.1002/jid.2819.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cubides, F. 2001. “From Private to Public Violence: The Paramilitaries.” In Violence in Colombia 1990-2000, edited by C. Berquist, R. Peñaranda, and G. Gonzalo Sánchez, 127–150. Wilmington, Delaware: SR Books.
   Google Scholar
• Daly, S. Z. 2016. Organized Violence after Civil War. The Geography of Recruitment in Latin America. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dávalos, L. M., J. S. Holmes, N. Rodríguez, and D. Armenteras. 2014. “Demand for Beef Is Unrelated to Pasture Expansion in Northwestern Amazonia.” Biological Conservation 170: 64–73. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2013.12.018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dube, O., and J. F. Vargas. 2013. “Commodity Price Shocks and Civil Conflict: Evidence from Colombia.” The Review of Economic Studies 80 (4): 1384–1421. doi:10.1093/restud/rdt009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan, G. 2015a. Más Que Plata O Plomo: El Poder Político Del Narcotráfico En Colombia Y México. Bogotá, Colombia: Debate.
   Google Scholar
• Duncan, G. 2015b. Los Señores De La Guerra, De Paramilitares Mafiosos Y Autodefensas En Colombia. Bogotá, Colombia: Planeta Colombiana.
   Google Scholar
• Duran-Martinez, A. 2015. “To Kill and Tell? State Power, Criminal Competition, and Drug Violence.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 59 (8): 1377–1402. doi:10.1177/0022002715587047.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elhawary, S. 2008. “Violent Paths to Peace? Rethinking the Conflict-Development Nexus in Colombia.” Colombia International 67: 84–100. doi:10.7440/colombiaint67.2008.04.
   Google Scholar
• Escobar, A. 2003. “Displacement, Development, and Modernity in the Colombian Pacific.” International Social Science Journal 175 (55): 157–167. doi:10.1111/1468-2451.5501015.
   Google Scholar
• Faguet, J.-P., and S. Fabio. 2008. “Decentralization’s Effects on Educational Outcomes in Bolivia and Colombia.” Journal of World Development 36 (7): 1294–1316. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.06.021.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fedegan. 2017. Inventario Nacional Bovino a Nivel Municipal. Bogotá: Federación Colombiana de Ganaderos.
   Google Scholar
• Feldmann, A. E. 2018. “Revolutionary Terror in the Colombian Civil War.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 41 (10): 825–846. doi:10.1080/1057610X.2017.1348099.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldmann, A. E., and V. J. Hinojosa. 2009. “Terrorism in Colombia: Logic and Sources of a Multidimensional and Ubiquitous Phenomenon.” Terrorism and Political Violence 21 (1): 42–61. doi:10.1080/09546550802544656.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franz, T. 2016. “Plan Colombia: Illegal Drugs, Economic Development and Counterinsurgency – A Political Economic Analysis of Colombia’s Failed War.” Journal of Development Policy Review 34 (4): 563–591. doi:10.1111/dpr.12161.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelman, Andrew. 2006. “Multilevel Modeling: What It Can and Can’t Do.” Technometrics48, no. 2: 241-51.
   Google Scholar
• Goebertus, J. 2008. “Palma De Aceite Y Desplazamiento Forzado En Zona Bananera.” Colombia Internacional 67: 152–175. doi:10.7440/colombiaint67.2008.07.
   Google Scholar
• Grajales, J. 2017. “Private Security and Paramilitarism in Colombia: Governing in the Midst of Violence.” Journal of Politics in Latin America 9 (3): 27–48. doi:10.1177/1866802X1700900302.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guerrero Baron, J., and D. Mond. 2001. “Is the War Ending? Premises and Hypotheses with Which to View the Conflict in Colombia.” Journal of Latin American Perspectives 28 (1): 12–30. doi:10.1177/0094582X0102800102.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Güiza, L., and J. D. Aristizabal. 2013. “Mercury and Gold Mining in Colombia: A Failed State.” Universitas Scientiarum 18 (1): 33–49.
   Google Scholar
• Gutiérrez Sanín, F., and E. J. Wood. 2017. “What Should We Mean by “Pattern of Political Violence”? Repertoire, Targeting, Frequency, and Technique.” Perspectives on Politics 15 (1): 20–41. doi:10.1017/S1537592716004114.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gutiérrez Sanín, F., and M. Barón. 2005. “Re-Stating the State: Paramilitary Territorial Control and Political Order in Colombia (1978-2004).” Crisis States Research Center Working Papers Series 1: 66. London School of Economics and Political Science.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, B. C., and M. Ian. 2001. “Sowing Dragon’s Teeth: Public Support for Political Violence and Paramilitarism in Northern Ireland.” Political Studies 49 (5): 901–922. doi:10.1111/1467-9248.00346.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henckaerts, J. M. 2005. “Study on Customary International Humanitarian Law”. In Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting, (423–428. 99 Vols.) New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Holmes, J. S., S. A. G. de Piñeres, and K. Curtin. 2006. “Drugs, Violence, and Development in Colombia: A Department-Level Analysis.” Latin American Politics and Society 48 (3): 157–184. doi:10.1111/j.1548-2456.2006.tb00359.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howe, K., F. Sánchez, and C. Contreras. 2010. “¿El Camino Hacia La Paz O Palos De Ciego? Impacto Del Programa De Desmovilización Paramilitar En La Violencia Homicida En Colombia.” Documentos CEDE 43. Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes.
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch. 2019. “World Report 2019: Rights Trends in Colombia.” Human Rights Watch. Accessed 20 December 2018. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/colombia
   Google Scholar
• Hussman, K. 2011. Vulnerabilities to Corruption in the Health Sector: Perspectives from Latin American Sub-Sytems for the Poor. Panama: United Nations Development Programme.
   Google Scholar
• Idrobo, N., D. Mejía, and A. M. Tribin. 2014. “Illegal Gold Mining and Violence in Colombia.” Peace Economics, Peace Science, and Public Policy 20 (1): 83–111. doi:10.1515/peps-2013-0053.
   Google Scholar
• Idrobo, Nicolás, Daniel Mejía, and Ana María Tribin. 2014. “”Illegal Gold Mining and Violence in Colombia“;.” Peace Economics, Peace. Science and Public Policy 20 (1): 83-112. doi:10.1515/peps-2013-0053.
   Google Scholar
• INDEPAZ. 2012. VIII Informe Sobre Grupos Narcoparamilitares. Bogotá Colombia: Instituto de Estudios para el Desarrollo y la Paz.
   Google Scholar
• Jentzsch, C., S. N. Kalywas, L. I. Schubiger, C. Jentzsch, S. N. Kalyvas, and L. I. Schubiger. 2015. “Militias in Civil Wars.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 59 (5): 755–769. doi:10.1177/0022002715576753.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston, L. 1996. “What Is Vigilantism?” British Journal of Criminology 36 (2): 220–236. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a014083.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krakowski, K. 2015. “Colombian Paramilitaries since Demobilization: Between State Crackdown and Increased Violence.” Latin American Politics & Society 57 (4): 28–50. doi:10.1111/j.1548-2456.2015.00287.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lair, E. 2003. “Reflexiones Acerca Del Terror En Los Scenarios De Guerra Interna.” Revista De Estudios Sociales, Facultad De Ciencias Sociales, Uniandes/Fundacion Social 15 (June): 96–120.
   Google Scholar
• Lair, E. 2004. “Transformaciones Y Fluidez De La Guerra En Colombia. Un Enfoque Military.” In Violencias Y Estrategias Colectivas En La Región Andina, edited by G. Sánchez and L. Eric. 103-143. Bogotá: IFEA- Editorial Norma, Coleccioón Vitral.
   Google Scholar
• Langford, I. H., A. H. Leyland, J. Rasbash, and H. Goldstein. 1999. “Multilevel Modelling of the Geographical Distributions of Diseases.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series C (Applied Statistics) 48 (2): 253–268. doi:10.1111/rssc.1999.48.issue-2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Luna, J. P., and H. D. Soifer. 2017. “Capturing Sub-National Variation in State Capacity: A Survey-Based Approach.” American Behavioral Scientist 61 (8): 887–907. doi:10.1177/0002764217720964.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maher, D. 2015a. “The Fatal Attraction of Civil War Economies: Foreign Direct Investment and Political Violence, A Case Study of Colombia.” International Studies Review 17 (2): 217–248. doi:10.1111/misr.12218.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maher, D. 2015b. “Rooted in Violence: Civil War, International Trade and the Expansion of Palm Oil in Colombia.” New Political Economy 20 (2): 299–330. doi:10.1080/13563467.2014.923825.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manwaring, M. 2013. “Translating Lessons Learned in Colombia and Other Wars among the People: Confronting the Spectrum of 21st Century Conflict.” Small Wars Journal 9: 8.
   Google Scholar
• Martha, H., ed. 1991. Vigilantism and the State in Latin America: Essays on Extralegal Violence. New York: Praegar.
   Google Scholar
• McNeish, J.-A. 2016. “Extracting Justice? Colombia’s Commitment to Mining and Energy as a Foundation for Peace.” The International Journal of Human Rights 21 (4): 500–516. doi:10.1080/13642987.2016.1179031.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melliana, A., Y. Setyorini, H. Eko, S. Rosi, and Purhadi. 2013. “The Comparison of Generalized Poisson Regression and Negative Binomial Repression Methods in Overcoming Overdispersion.” International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research 2 (8): 255–258.
   Google Scholar
• Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural. “Red De Información Y Comunicación Del Sector Agropecuario De Colombia (Agronet).” http://www.agronet.gov.co/estadistica/Paginas/default.aspx
   Google Scholar
• Moncada, E. 2013. “The Politics of Urban Violence: Challenges for Development in the Global South.” Comparative Political Studies 48 (3): 217–240.
   Google Scholar
• Monroy, J. C. 2013. “Revelan Fotos De La Exhumación De Restos De Fidel Castaño.” El Colombiano, September 29.
   Google Scholar
• Nuñez, J. 2001. Fighting the Hobbesian Trinity in Colombia: A New Strategy for Peace. Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Nussio, E., and K. Howe. 2016. “When Protection Collapses: Post-Demobilization Trajectories of Violence.” Terrorism and Political Violence 28: 848–867. doi:10.1080/09546553.2014.955916.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pérez, Manuel, P. 1999. “El Desplazamiento Por Violencia Y Los Procesos De Reconstrucción Vital En Colombia.” Revista Javeriana 67: 663–676.
   Google Scholar
• Restrepo, J. A., and R. Muggah. 2009. “Colombia’s Quiet Demobilization: A Security Dividend?” In Security and Post-Conflict Reconstruction: Dealing with Fighters in the Aftermath of War, edited by Muggah, 30–46. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Rettberg, A., and J. F. Ortiz-Riomalo. 2016. “Golden Opportunity, or a New Twist on the Resource–Conflict Relationship: Links between the Drug Trade and Illegal Gold Mining in Colombia.” World Development 84: 82–96. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.03.020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richani, N. 2007. “Caudillos and the Crisis of the Colombian State: Fragmented Sovereignty, the War System and the Privatization of Counterinsurgency in Colombia.” Third World Quarterly 28 (2): 403–417. doi:10.1080/01436590601153937.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero, M. 2000. “Changing Identities and Contested Settings: Regional Elites and the Paramilitaries in Colombia.” International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society 14 (1): 51–69. doi:10.1023/A:1007861013044.
   Google Scholar
• Romero, M. 2003. Paramilitares Y Autodefensas 1982-2003. Bogotá: IEPRI.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenbaum, H. R. 1974. “Vigilantism: An Analysis of Establishment Violence.” Comparative Politics 6 (4): 541–570. doi:10.2307/421337.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubio, M. 2014. “The Effect of Armed Conflict on Social Capital in Colombia.” Preliminary Version.
   Google Scholar
• Saab Bilal, Y., and A. W. Taylor. 2009. “Criminality and Armed Groups: A Comparative Study of FARC and Paramilitary Groups in Colombia.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 32 (6): 455–475. doi:10.1080/10576100902892570.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skaug, H., D. Fournier, B. Bolker, A. Magnusson, and A. Nielsen. 2016. “Generalized Linear Mixed Models Using ‘AD Model Builder’.” R package version 0.8.3.3.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, E. B. [2002] 2003. “The New Condottieri and US Policy: The Privatization of Conflict and Its Implications.” Parameters 32 (4): 104–119.
   Google Scholar
• Snyder, R., and R. Bhavnani. 2005. “Diamonds, Blood, and Taxes: A Revenue-Centered Framework for Explaining Political Order.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 49 (4): 563–597. doi:10.1177/0022002705277796.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sprinzak, E. 1995. “Right-Wing Terrorism in a Comparative Perspective: The Case of Split Delegitimization.” Terrorism and Political Violence 7 (1): 17–43. doi:10.1080/09546559508427284.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tate, W. 2001. “Paramilitaries in Colombia.” The Brown Journal of World Affairs 8 (1): 163–175.
   Google Scholar
• Thoumi, F. E. 2002. “Illegal Drugs in Colombia: From Illegal Economic to Social Crisis.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 582: 102–116. doi:10.1177/000271620258200108.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tseloni, A. 1999. “Comparing Multilevel and Single-Level Negative Binomial Regression Models of Personal Crimes: Evidence from the National Crime Victimization Survey. Sl: Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice.” Department of Criminology and criminal justice, 1–27
   Google Scholar
• Vargas, J. F. 2012. “The Persistent Colombian Conflict: Subnational Analysis of the Duration of Violence.” Defense and Peace Economics 23 (2): 203–223. doi:10.1080/10242694.2011.597234.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wayne, N. E., and J. Auvinen. 2002. “Economic Development, Inequality, War, and State Violence.” Journal of World Development 30 (2): 153–163. doi:10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00108-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, R. G. 1986. Export Agriculture and the Crisis in Central America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Zapata, P., and G. Dario. 2003. “Terrorism in Colombia.” Prehospital and Disaster Medicine 18 (2): 80–87.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar