Does Affective Forecasting Error Induce Changes in Preferences? Lessons from Danish Soldiers Anticipating Combat in Afghanistan

References

• Akesaka, M. 2019. “Change in Time Preferences: Evidence from the Great East Japan Earthquake.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 166: 239–245. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2019.08.013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Ubaydli, O., J. A. List, and D. L. Suskind. 2017. “What Can We Learn from Experiments? Understanding the Threats to the Scalability of Experimental Results.” American Economic Review: Papers & Proceedings 107 (5): 282–286. doi:10.1257/aer.p20171115.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, L. R., and J. M. Mellor. 2008. “Predicting Health Behaviors with an Experimental Measure of Risk Preference.” Journal of Health Economics 27 (5): 1260–1274. doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2008.05.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anger, S., G. Camehl, and F. Peter. 2017. “Involuntary Job Loss and Changes in Personality – Evidence from Plant Closures.” Journal of Economic Psychology 60: 71–91. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2017.01.007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arrondel, L., and A. Masson. 2014. “Mesurer les préférences des épargnants: Comment et pourquoi (en temps de crise)?” Economie et Statistique 467–468: 5–49. doi:10.3406/estat.2014.10244.
   Google Scholar
• Arrondel, L., A. Masson, and D. Verger. 2005. “Le questionnaire de l’enquête Insee-Delta: Comportements face au risque et à l’avenir.” Economie et Statistique 374–375: 159–170.
   Google Scholar
• Aubert, C., and A. Reynaud. 2020. “Does Flood Experience Modify Risk Preferences? Evidence from an Artefactual Field Experiment in Vietnam.” Geneva Risk and Insurance Review 45 (1): 36–74. doi:10.1057/s10713-019-00044-w.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banerjee, A., and E. Duflo. 2003. “Inequality and Growth: What Can the Data Say?” Journal of Economic Growth 8 (3): 267–299. doi:10.1023/A:1026205114860.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barsky, R. B., T. Juster, M. Kimball, and M. Shapiro. 1997. “Preference Parameters and Behavioural Heterogeneity: An Experimental Approach in the Health and Retirement Study.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 112 (2): 537–579. doi:10.1162/003355397555280.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beaud, M., and M. Willinger. 2014. “Are People Risk Vulnerable?” Management Science 61 (3): 624–636. doi:10.1287/mnsc.2013.1868.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becketti, S., W. Gould, L. Lillard, and F. Welch. 1988. “The Panel Study of Income Dynamics after Fourteen Years: An Evaluation.” Journal of Labor Economics 6 (4) : 472–492. doi:10.1086/298192.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ben-Zur, H., and M. Zeidner. 2009. “Threat to Life and Risk-Taking Behaviors: A Review of Empirical Findings and Explanatory Models.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 13 (2): 109–128. doi:10.1177/1088868308330104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernile, G., V. Bhagwat, and P. R. Rau. 2017. “What Doesn’t Kill You Will Only Make You More Risk-Loving: Early-Life Disasters and CEO Behavior.” The Journal of Finance 72 (1): 167–206. doi:10.1111/jofi.12432.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bleidorn, W., C. J. Hopwood, and R. E. Lucas. 2018. “Life Events and Personality Trait Change.” Journal of Personality 86 (1): 83–96. doi:10.1111/jopy.12286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borghans, L., J. J. Heckman, B. H. Golsteyn, and H. Meijers. 2009. “Gender Differences in Risk Aversion and Ambiguity Aversion.” Journal of the European Economic Association 7 (2–3): 649–658. doi:10.1162/JEEA.2009.7.2-3.649.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brænder, M. 2016. “Adrenalin Junkies: Why Soldiers Return from War Wanting More.” Armed Forces and Society 42 (1): 3–25. doi:10.1177/0095327X15569296.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brænder, M. 2020. “Transgression within Boundaries: A Qualitative Study of Excitement Motivation among Combat Troops.” Qualitative Psychology 7 (1): 23–42. doi:10.1037/qup0000119.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, R., V. Montalva, D. Thomas, and A. Velasquez. 2019. “Impact of Violent Crime on Risk Aversion: Evidence from the Mexican Drug War.” Review of Economics and Statistics 101 (5): 892–904. doi:10.1162/rest_a_00788.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunnermeier, M. K., and S. Nagel. 2008. “Do Wealth Fluctuations Generate Time-Varying Risk Aversion? Micro-Evidence on Individuals’ Asset Allocation.” American Economic Review 98 (3): 713–736. doi:10.1257/aer.98.3.713.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bucciol, A., and L. Zarri. 2015. “The Shadow of the Past: Financial Risk Taking and Negative Life Events.” Journal of Economic Psychology 48: 1–16. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2015.02.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callen, M. 2015. “Catastrophes and Time Preference: Evidence from the Indian Ocean Earthquake.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 118: 199–214. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2015.02.019.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callen, M., M. Isaqzadeh, J. D. Long, and C. Sprenger. 2014. “Violence and Risk Preference: Experimental Evidence from Afghanistan.” American Economic Review 104 (1): 123–148. doi:10.1257/aer.104.1.123.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cameron, L. A., and M. Shah. 2015. “Risk-Taking Behavior in the Wake of Natural Disasters.” Journal of Human Resources 50 (2): 484–515. doi:10.3368/jhr.50.2.484.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caplin, A., and J. Leahy. 2001. “Psychological Expected Utility Theory and Anticipatory Feelings.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 116 (1): 55–79. doi:10.1162/003355301556347.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cassar, A., A. Healy, and C. Von Kessler. 2017. “Trust, Risk, and Time Preferences after a Natural Disaster: Experimental Evidence from Thailand.” World Development 94: 90–105. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.12.042.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chanel, O., E. Faugère, G. Geniaux, R. Kast, S. Luchini, and C. Protopopescu. 2001. “Approche socio-anthropologique et économique de la pollution atmosphérique: Une application au département des Bouches-du-Rhône.” Unpublished research report #36/98, Greqam, Marseille, France.
   Google Scholar
• Charpentier, C. J., J. E. De Neve, X. Li, J. P. Roiser, and T. Sharot. 2016. “Models of Affective Decision Making: How Do Feelings Predict Choice?” Psychological Science 27 (6): 763–775. doi:10.1177/0956797616634654.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chernozhukov, V., D. Chetverikov, M. Demirer, E. Duflo, C. Hansen, W. Newey, and J. Robins. 2018. “Double/debiased Machine Learning for Treatment and Structural Parameters.” Econometrics Journal 21 (1): C1–C68. doi:10.1111/ectj.12097.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chuang, Y., and L. Schechter. 2015. “Stability of Experimental and Survey Measures of Risk, Time and Social Preferences: A Review and Some New Results.” Journal of Development Economics 117: 151–170. doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2015.07.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coteţ, C. D., and D. David. 2016. “The Truth about Predictions and Emotions: Two Meta-analyses of Their Relationship.” Personality and Individual Difference 94: 82–91. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.12.046.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Blasio, G., M. De Paola, S. Poy, and V. Scoppa. 2021. “Massive Earthquakes, Risk Aversion, and Entrepreneurship.” Small Business Economics 57 (1): 295–322. doi:10.1007/s11187-020-00327-x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dohmen, T., A. Falk, D. Huffman, and U. Sunde. 2010. “Are Risk Aversion and Impatience Related to Cognitive Ability?” American Economic Review 100 (3): 1238–1260. doi:10.1257/aer.100.3.1238.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duersch, P., D. Römer, and B. Roth. 2017. “Intertemporal Stability of Uncertainty Preferences.” Journal of Economic Psychology 60: 7–20. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2017.01.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eckel, C. C., M. A. El-Gamal, and R. K. Wilson. 2009. “Risk Loving after the Storm: A Bayesian-Network Study of Hurricane Katrina Evacuees.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 69 (2): 110–124. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2007.08.012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elder, G., and E. Clipp. 1989. “Combat Experience and Emotional Health: Impairment and Resilience in Later Life.” Journal of Personality 57 (2): 311–341. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1989.tb00485.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etchart-Vincent, N., and O. l’Haridon. 2011. “Monetary Incentives in the Loss Domain and Behavior toward Risk: An Experimental Comparison of Three Reward Schemes Including Real Losses.” Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 42 (1): 61–83. doi:10.1007/s11166-010-9110-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falk, A., A. Becker, T. Dohmen, B. Enke, D. Huffman, and U. Sunde. 2018. ”Global evidence on economic preferences.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 133 (4): 1645–1692. doi:10.1093/qje/qjy013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzgerald, J., P. Gottschalk, and R. Moffit. 1998. “An Analysis of Sample Attrition in Panel Data: The Michigan Panel Study of Income Dynamics.” Journal of Human Resources 33 (2): 251–299. doi:10.2307/146433.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredrickson, B., and D. Kahneman. 1993. “Duration Neglect in Retrospective Evaluations of Affective Episodes.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (1): 45–55. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.1.45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman, M. 1962. Price Theory. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Fuchs, V. R. 1982. “Time Preferences and Health: An Exploratory Study.” In Economic Aspects of Health, edited by V. Fuchs, 93–120. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Galizzi, M. M., S. R. Machado, and R. Miniaci. 2016. “Temporal Stability, Cross-Validity, and External Validity of Risk Preferences Measures: Experimental Evidence from a UK Representative Sample.” Mimeo, London School of Economics, Accessed 11 January 2022, available at http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/67554/1/Galizzi_temporal_stability.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Gallegati, M., J. Ramsey, and W. Semmler. 2014. “Interest Rate Spreads and Output: A Time Scale Decomposition Analysis Using Wavelets.” Computational Statistics & Data Analysis 76: 283–290. doi:10.1016/j.csda.2014.02.024.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garyn-Tal, S., and S. Shahrabani. 2021. “Emotions, Economic Expectations and Risk Attitudes among Soldiers during a Military Operation.” Israel Affairs 27 (2): 300–313. doi:10.1080/13537121.2021.1891503.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert, D. T., E. C. Pinel, T. D. Wilson, S. J. Blumberg, and T. P. Wheatley. 1998. “Immune Neglect: A Source of Durability Bias in Affective Forecasting.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75 (3): 617–638. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.3.617.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert, D. T., and T. D. Wilson. 2009. “Why the Brain Talks to Itself: Sources of Error in Emotional Prediction.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364 (1521): 1335–1341. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gollier, C., and J. W. Pratt. 1996. “Risk Vulnerability and the Tempering Effect of Background Risk.” Econometrica 64 (5): 1109–1123. doi:10.2307/2171958.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golsteyn, B., and H. Schildberg-Hörisch. 2017. “Challenges in Research on Preferences and Personality Traits: Measurement, Stability, and Inference.” Journal of Economic Psychology 60: 1–6. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2017.03.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grable, J., and R. H. Lytton. 1999. “Financial Risk Tolerance Revisited: The Development of a Risk Assessment Instrument.” Financial Services Review 8 (3): 163–181. doi:10.1016/S1057-0810(99)00041-4.
   Google Scholar
• Graham, D. J. 1999. “Asia and the Global Operations of Multinational Corporations.” In Japanese Multinationals in Asia: Regional Operations in Comparative Perspective, edited by D. Encarnation, 46–84. New York, NY US: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Guiso, L., P. Sapienza, and L. Zingales. 2018. “Time Varying Risk Aversion.” Journal of Financial Economics 128 (3): 403–421. doi:10.1016/j.jfineco.2018.02.007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haerem, T., B. Kuvaas, B. T. Bakken, and T. Karlsen. 2011. “Do Military Decision Makers Behave as Predicted by Prospect Theory?” Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 24 (5): 482–497. doi:10.1002/bdm.704.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanaoka, C., H. Shigeoka, and Y. Watanabe. 2018. “Do Risk Preferences Change? Evidence from the Great East Japan Earthquake.” American Economic Journal. Applied Economics 10 (2): 298–330.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartley, C. A., and E. A. Phelps. 2012. “Anxiety and Decision-Making.” Biological Psychiatry 72 (2): 113–118. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.12.027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heckman, J. J., J. Stixrud, and S. Urzua. 2006. “The Effects of Cognitive and Noncognitive Abilities on Labor Market Outcomes and Social Behavior.” Journal of Labor Economics 24 (3): 411–482. doi:10.1086/504455.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jakiela, P., and O. Ozier. 2019. “The Impact of Violence on Individual Risk Preferences: Evidence from a Natural Experiment.” Review of Economics and Statistics 101 (3): 547–559. doi:10.1162/rest_a_00763.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• John, O. P., E. M. Donahue, and R. L. Kentle. 1991. The Big Five Inventory Versions 4a and 54. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Berkeley, Institute of Personality and Social Research.
   Google Scholar
• John, O. P., L. P. Naumann, and C. J. Soto. 2008. “Paradigm Shift to the Integrative Big Five Trait Taxonomy: History, Measurement, and Conceptual Issues.” In Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research, edited by O. P. John, R. W. Robins, and L. A. Pervin, 114–158. 3rd ed. New York, NY US: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kachelmeier, S., and M. Shehata. 1992. “Examining Risk Preferences under High Monetary Incentives: Experimental Evidence from the People’s Republic of China.” American Economic Review 82 (5): 1120–1141.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kermer, D. A., E. Driver-Linn, T. D. Wilson, and D. T. Gilbert. 2006. “Loss Aversion Is an Affective Forecasting Error.” Psychological Science 17 (8): 649–653. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01760.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, Y. I., and J. Lee. 2014. “The Long-Run Impact of a Traumatic Experience on Risk Aversion.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 108: 174–186. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2014.09.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King, L. A., D. W. King, D. S. Vogt, J. Knight, and R. E. Samper. 2006. “Deployment Risk and Resilience Inventory: A Collection of Measures for Studying Deployment-Related Experiences of Military Personnel and Veterans.” Military Psychology 18 (2): 89–120. doi:10.1207/s15327876mp1802_1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krupka, E. L., and M. Stephens. 2013. “The Stability of Measured Time Preferences.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 85: 11–19. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2012.10.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kugler, T., T. Connolly, and L. D. Ordóñez. 2012. “Emotion, Decision, and Risk: Betting on Gambles versus Betting on People.” Journal of Behavioural Decision Making 25 (2): 123–134. doi:10.1002/bdm.724.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lahav, E., U. Benzion, and T. Shavit. 2011. “The Effect of Military Service on Soldiers’ Time Preferences: Evidence from Israel.” Judgment and Decision Making 6 (2): 130–138.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerner, J. S., and D. Keltner. 2000. “Beyond Valence: Toward a Model of Emotion-Specific Influences on Judgement and Choice.” Cognition & Emotion 14 (4): 473–493. doi:10.1080/026999300402763.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerner, J. S., and D. Keltner. 2001. “Fear, Anger, and Risk.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (1): 146–159. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.1.146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loewenstein, G. 2007. “Affect Regulation and Affective Forecasting.” In Handbook of Emotion Regulation, edited by J. J.Gross, 180–203. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Loewenstein, G. F., E. U. Weber, C. K. Hsee, and N. Welch. 2001. “Risk as Feelings.” Psychological Bulletin 127 (2): 267–286. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malmendier, U., and S. Nagel. 2011. “Depression Babies: Do Macroeconomic Experiences Affect Risk-Taking?” Quaterly Journal of Economics 126 (1): 373–416. doi:10.1093/qje/qjq004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malmendier, U., G. Tate, and J. Yan. 2011. “Overconfidence and Early‐Life Experiences: The Effect of Managerial Traits on Corporate Financial Policies.” The Journal of Finance 66 (5): 1687–1733. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6261.2011.01685.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maner, J. K., J. A. Richey, K. Cromer, M. Mallott, C. W. Lejuez, T. E. Joiner, and N. B. Schmidt. 2007. “Dispositional Anxiety and Risk-Avoidant Decision-Making.” Personality and Individual Differences 42 (4): 665–675. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.08.016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier, A. 2022. “Emotions and Risk Attitudes.” American Economic Journal. Applied Economics forthcoming. https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/app.20200164&&from=f
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier, S., and C. D. Sprenger. 2015. “Temporal Stability of Time Preferences.” Review of Economics and Statistics 97 (2): 273–286. doi:10.1162/REST_a_00433.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mellers, B. A., and A. P. McGraw. 2001. “Anticipated Emotions as Guides to Choice.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 10 (6): 210–214. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00151.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyvis, T., R. K. Ratner, and J. Levav. 2010. “Why Don’t We Learn to Accurately Forecast Feelings? How Misremembering Our Predictions Blinds Us to past Forecasting Errors.” Journal of Experimental Psychology. General 139 (4): 579–589. doi:10.1037/a0020285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miloyan, B., and T. Suddendorf. 2015. “Feelings of the Future.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 19 (4): 196–200. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2015.01.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moya, A. 2018. “Violence, Psychological Trauma, and Risk Attitudes: Evidence from Victims of Violence in Colombia.” Journal of Development Economics 131: 15–27. doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2017.11.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ochsner, K. 2000. “Are Affective Events Richly Recollected or Simply Familiar? The Experience and Process of Recognizing Feelings Past.” Journal of Experimental Psychology. General 129 (2): 242–261. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.129.2.242.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preuß, M. 2019. Essays on the Endogeneity of Preferences and Personality Traits [PhD diss.]. Berlin, Wiesbaden: Freien Universität.
   Google Scholar
• Redelmeier, D., J. Katz, and D. Kahneman. 2003. “Memories of Colonoscopy: A Randomized Trial.” Pain 104 (1–2): 187–194. doi:10.1016/S0304-3959(03)00003-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rick, S., and G. Loewenstein. 2008. “The Role of Emotion in Economic Behavior.” Handbook of Emotions 3: 138–158.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson, P. M. 1988. “Root-N-consistent Semiparametric Regression.” Econometrica 56 (4): 931–954. doi:10.2307/1912705.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rotter, J. B. 1966. “Generalized Expectancies for Internal versus External Control of Reinforcement.” Psychological Monographs: General and Applied 80 (1): 1–28. doi:10.1037/h0092976.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Russell, J. A. 1980. “A Circumplex Model of Affect.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (6): 1161–1178. doi:10.1037/h0077714.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salamanca, N. 2018. “The Dynamic Properties of Economic Preferences”. Melbourne Institute Working Paper No. 04/18, Accessed 11 January 2022, available at https://ssrn.com/abstract=3164693
   Google Scholar
• Schildberg-Hörisch, H. 2018. “Are Risk Preferences Stable?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 32 (2): 135–154. doi:10.1257/jep.32.2.135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stigler, G. J., and G. S. Becker. 1977. “De Gustibus Non Est Disputandum.” American Economic Review 67 (2): 76–90.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strom, T. Q., J. Leskela, L. M. James, P. D. Thuras, E. Voller, R. Weigel, M. Yutsis, A. Khaylis, J. Lindberg, and K. B. Holz. 2012. “An Exploratory Examination of Risk-Taking Behavior and PTSD Symptom Severity in a Veteran Sample.” Military Medicine 177 (4): 390–396. doi:10.7205/MILMED-D-11-00133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutton, R. S., and A. G. Barto. 1998. Introduction to Reinforcement Learning. Vol. 135. Cambridge: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Van Den Berg, M., R. Fort, and K. Burger. 2009. “Natural Hazards and Risk Aversion: Experimental Evidence from Latin America.” In International Association of Agricultural Economists Conference, Beijing, China, 16–22.
   Google Scholar
• Voors, M. J., E. E. M. Nillesen, P. Verwimp, E. H. Bulte, R. Lensink, and D. P. Van Soest. 2012. “Violent Conflict and Behavior: A Field Experiment in Burundi.” American Economic Review 102 (2): 941–964. doi:10.1257/aer.102.2.941.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wager, S. 2021. ”Machine Learning for Causal Inference.” Lecture notes, Stanford University SAMSI Virtual Workshop on Metaheuristics, Accessed 11 January 2022, available at https://web.stanford.edu/~swager/stats361.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Weathers, F., and J. Ford. 1996. “Psychometric Review of PTSD Checklist (PCL-C, PCL-S, PCL-M, PCLPR).” In Measurement of Stress, Trauma, and Adaptation, edited by B. H. Stamm, 250–252. Luthewille, MD: Sidran Press.
   Google Scholar
• Willinger, M., M. A. Bchir, and C. Heitz. 2013. “Risk and Time Preferences under the Threat of Background Risk: A Case-Study of Lahars Risk in Central Java.” Unpublished Lameta Working Paper 13-08, Accessed 12 January 2022, available at https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.727.3158&rep=rep1&type=pdf
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, T. D., and D. T. Gilbert. 2003. “Affective Forecasting.” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 35: 345–411.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woelbert, E., and A. Rield. 2013. “Measuring Time and Risk Preferences: Reliability, Stability, Domain Specificity.” Netspar Discussion Paper No. 07/2013-044, Accessed 11 January 2022, available at https://ssrn.com/abstract=2354907
   Google Scholar
• Wooldridge, J. M. 2015. “Control Function Methods in Applied Econometrics.” Journal of Human Resources 50 (2): 420–445. doi:10.3368/jhr.50.2.420.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar