Publication Cover
Nutritional Neuroscience
An International Journal on Nutrition, Diet and Nervous System
Volume 22, 2019 - Issue 12
4,038
Views
50
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Reviews

Diet: the keystone of autism spectrum disorder?

ORCID Icon, , , , ORCID Icon, & show all

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013.
  • Lenroot RK, Yeung PK. Heterogeneity within autism spectrum disorders: what have we learned from neuroimaging studies? Front Hum Neurosci 2013;7:733. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00733.
  • Baio J. Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders: autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 14 sites, United States, 2008. MMWR Surveill Summ 2012;61(3):1–19.3.
  • Lai MC, Lombardo M V, Baron-Cohen S. Autism. Lancet 2014;383(9920):896–910. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61539-1
  • Kana RK, Uddin LQ, Kenet T, Chugani D, Müller R-A. Brain connectivity in autism. Front Hum Neurosci 2014;8:349. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00349
  • Stubbs G, Henley K, Green J. Autism: will vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy and early childhood reduce the recurrence rate of autism in newborn siblings? Med Hypotheses 2016;88:74–78. doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2016.01.015
  • Hallmayer J, Cleveland S, Torres A, Phillips J, Cohen B, Torigoe T, et al. Genetic heritability and shared environmental factors among twin pairs with autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2011;68(11):1095–102. doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.76
  • Herbert MR. Contributions of the environment and environmentally vulnerable physiology to autism spectrum disorders. Curr Opin Neurol 2010;23(2):103–10. doi: 10.1097/WCO.0b013e328336a01f
  • Morgese MG, Trabace L. Maternal malnutrtion in the etiopathogenesis of psychiatric disease: role of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Brain Sci 2016;6(3): pii E24. doi: 10.3390/brainsci6030024
  • Sullivan EL, Nousen L, Chamlou K. Maternal high fat diet consumption during the perinatal period programs offspring behavior. Physiol Behav 2014;123(17):236–42. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.07.014
  • Lyall K, Schmidt RJ, Hertz-Picciotto I. Maternal lifestyle and environmental risk factors for autism spectrum disorders. Int J Epidemiol 2014;43(2):443–64. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyt282
  • Schmidt RJ, Hansen RL, Hartiala J, Allayee H, Schmidt LC, Tancredi DJ, et al. Prenatal vitamins, one-carbon metabolism gene variants, and risk for autism. Epidemiology 2011;22(4):476–85. doi: 10.1097/EDE.0b013e31821d0e30
  • Schmidt RJ, Tancredi DJ, Ozonoff S, Hansen RL, Hartiala J, Allayee H, et al. Maternal periconceptional folic acid intake and risk of autism spectrum disorders and developmental delay in the CHARGE (childhood autism risks from genetics and environment) case-control study. Am J Clin Nutr 2012;96(1):80–89. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.110.004416
  • Suren P, Roth C, Bresnahan M, Haugen M, Hornig M, Hirtz D, et al. Association between maternal use of folic acid supplements and risk of autism spectrum disorders in children. J Am Med Assoc 2013;309(6):570–7. doi: 10.1001/jama.2012.155925
  • Madore C, Leyrolle Q, Lacabanne C, Benmamar-Badel A, Joffre C, Nadjar A, et al. Neuroinflammation in autism: plausible role of maternal inflammation, dietary omega 3, and microbiota. Neural Plast 2016;359:7:209.
  • Walton RG, Monte WC. Dietary methanol and autism. Med Hypotheses 2015;85(4):441–6. doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2015.06.025
  • Wijngaarden EV, Davidson PW, Smith TH, Evans K, Yost K, Love T, et al. Autism spectrum disorder phenotypes and prenatal exposure to methylmercury. Epidemiology 2013;24(5):651–9. doi: 10.1097/EDE.0b013e31829d2651
  • Lyall K, Munger KL, O’Reilly ÉJ, Santangelo SL, Ascherio A. Maternal dietary fat intake in association with autism spectrum disorders. Am J Epidemiol 2013;178(2):209–20. doi: 10.1093/aje/kws433
  • Ledford JR, Gast DL. Feeding problems in children with autism spectrum dis, orders a review. Focus Autism Other Dev Disabil 2006;21:3:153–66. doi: 10.1177/10883576060210030401
  • Curtin C, Anderson SE, Must A, Bandini LG. The prevalence of obesity in children with autism: a secondary data analysis using nationally representative data from the national survey of children’s health. BMC Pediatr 2010;10:11. doi: 10.1186/1471-2431-10-11
  • Sharp WG, Jaquess DL, Lukens CT. Multi-method assessment of feeding problems among children with autism spectrum disorders. Res Autism Spectr Disord 2013;7(1):56–65. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2012.07.001
  • Stewart PA, Hyman SL, Schmidt BL, Macklin EA, Reynolds A, Johnson CR, et al. Dietary supplementation in children with autism spectrum disorders: common, insufficient, and excessive. J Acad Nutr Diet 2015;115(8):1237–48. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2015.03.026
  • Hyman SL, Stewart P a., Schmidt B, Cain U, Lemcke N, Foley JT, et al. Nutrient intake from food in children with autism. Pediatrics 2012;130:S145–53. doi: 10.1542/peds.2012-0900L
  • Marí-Bauset S, Zazpe I, Mari-Sanchis A, Llopis-González A, Morales-Suárez-Varela M. Food selectivity in autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review. J Child Neurol 2013;29:1554–61. 23. doi: 10.1177/0883073813498821
  • Ranjan S, Nasser J a. Nutritional status of individuals with autism spectrum disorders: do we know enough? Adv Nutr 2015;15;6(4):397–407. doi: 10.3945/an.114.007914
  • Buehler MR. A proposed mechanism for autism: an aberrant neuroimmune response manifested as a psychiatric disorder. Med Hypotheses 2011;76(6):863–70. doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2011.02.038
  • Marí-Bauset S, Zazpe I, Mari-Sanchis A, Llopis-González A, Morales-Suárez-Varela M. Evidence of the gluten-free and casein-free diet in autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review. J Child Neurol 2014;29(12):1718–27. doi: 10.1177/0883073814531330
  • Knivsberg AM, Reichelt KL, Hoien T, Nodland M. A randomised, controlled study of dietary intervention in autistic syndromes. Nutr Neurosci 2002;5(4):251–61. doi: 10.1080/10284150290028945
  • Whiteley P, Haracopos D, Knivsberg A-M, Reichelt KL, Parlar S, Jacobsen J, et al. The ScanBrit randomised, controlled, single-blind study of a gluten- and casein-free dietary intervention for children with autism spectrum disorders. Nutr Neurosci 2010;13(2):87–100. doi: 10.1179/147683010X12611460763922
  • Pennesi CM, Klein LC. Effectiveness of the gluten-free, casein-free diet for children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder: based on parental report. Nutr Neurosci 2012;15(2):85–91. doi: 10.1179/1476830512Y.0000000003
  • Elder JH, Shankar M, Shuster J, Theriaque D, Burns S, Sherrill L. The gluten-free, casein-free diet in autism: results of a preliminary double blind clinical trial. J Autism Dev Disord 2006;36(3):413–20. doi: 10.1007/s10803-006-0079-0
  • Hyman SL, Stewart PA, Foley J, Cain U, Peck R, Morris DD, et al. The gluten-free/casein-free diet: a double-blind challenge trial in children with autism. J Autism Dev Disord 2016;46(1):205–20. doi: 10.1007/s10803-015-2564-9
  • Sidrak S, Yoong T, Woolfenden S. Iron deficiency in children with global developmental delay and autism spectrum disorder. J Paediatr Child Health 2014;50(5):356–61. doi: 10.1111/jpc.12483
  • Dosman CF, Brian JA, Drmic IE, Senthilselvan A, Harford MM, Smith RW, et al. Children with autism: effect of iron supplementation on sleep and ferritin. Pediatr Neurol 2007;36(3):152–8. doi: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2006.11.004
  • Reynolds A, Krebs NF, Stewart PA, Austin H, Johnson SL, Withrow N, et al. Iron status in children with autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics 2012;130(Suppl 2):S154–9. doi: 10.1542/peds.2012-0900M
  • Evangeliou A, Vlachonikolis I, Mihailidou H, Spilioti M, Skarpalezou A, Makaronas N, et al. Application of a ketogenic diet in children with autistic behavior: pilot study. J Child Neurol 2003;18(2):113–8. doi: 10.1177/08830738030180020501
  • Moretti P, Sahoo T, Hyland K, Bottiglieri T, Peters S, Del Gaudio D, et al. Cerebral folate deficiency with developmental delay, autism, and response to folinic acid. Neurology 2005;64(6):1088–90. doi: 10.1212/01.WNL.0000154641.08211.B7
  • Saad K, Abdel-Rahman AA, Elserogy YM, Al-Atram AA, El-Houfey AA, Othman HAK, et al. Randomized controlled trial of vitamin D supplementation in children with autism spectrum disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2016;59(1):20–9.
  • Frye R, Slattery J, Delhey L, Furgerson B, Strickland T, Tippett M, et al. Folinic acid improves verbal communication in children with autism and language impairment: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Mol Psychiatry 2016;23(2):247–56. doi: 10.1038/mp.2016.168
  • Feng J, Shan L, Du L, Wang B, Li H, Wang W, et al. Clinical improvement following vitamin D3 supplementation in autism spectrum disorder. Nutr Neurosci 2017;20(5):284–90. doi: 10.1080/1028415X.2015.1123847
  • Bent S, Bertoglio K, Ashwood P, Bostrom A, Hendren RL. A pilot randomized controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acids for autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 2011;41(5):545–54. doi: 10.1007/s10803-010-1078-8
  • Voigt RG, Mellon MW, Katusic SK, Weaver AL, Matern D, Mellon B, et al. Dietary docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in children with autism. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2014;58(6):715–22.
  • Li Q, Han Y, Dy ABC, Hagerman RJ. The gut microbiota and autism spectrum disorders. Front Cell Neurosci 2017;11:120. doi: 10.3389/fncel.2017.00120
  • Bruce-Keller AJ, Salbaum JM, Berthoud HR. Harnessing gut microbes for mental health: getting from here to there Biol Psychiatry 2018;83(3):214–23. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.08.014
  • Yang Y, Tian J, Yang B. Targeting gut microbiome: a novel and potential therapy for autism. Life Sci 2018;194:111–19. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2017.12.027
  • Marques A, O’connor T, Roth C, Susser E, Bjørke-Monsen A. The influence of maternal prenatal and early childhood nutrition and maternal prenatal stress on offspring immune system development and neurodevelopmental disorders. Front Neurosci 2013;7:120. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2013.00120
  • Oken E, Bellinger DC. Fish consumption, methylmercury and child neurodevelopment. Curr Opin Pediatr 2008;20:2:178–83. doi: 10.1097/MOP.0b013e3282f5614c
  • Waring ME, Lapane KL. Overweight in children and adolescents in relation to attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder: results from a national sample. Pediatrics 2008;122(1):e1–6. doi: 10.1542/peds.2007-1955
  • Patterson PH. Maternal infection and immune involvement in autism. Trends Mol Med 2011;17(7):389–94. doi: 10.1016/j.molmed.2011.03.001
  • Miles JH. Autism spectrum disorders – a genetics review. Genet Med 2011;13(4):278–94. doi: 10.1097/GIM.0b013e3181ff67ba
  • Sullivan EL, Nousen EK, Chamlou KA, Grove KL. The impact of maternal high-fat diet consumption on neural development and behavior of offspring. Int J Obes Suppl 2012;2:S7–S13. doi: 10.1038/ijosup.2012.15
  • Taranenko LA, Malutina NN. Congenital abnormalities in children whose parents were exposed to methanol and formaldehyde. Med Tr Prom Ekol 2012;(12):33–5.
  • Stewart FM, Freeman DJ, Ramsay JE, Greer IA, Caslake M, Ferrell WR. Longitudinal assessment of maternal endothelial function and markers of inflammation and placental function throughout pregnancy in lean and obese mothers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007;92(3):969–75. doi: 10.1210/jc.2006-2083
  • Sullivan EL, Smith MS, Grove KL. Perinatal exposure to high-fat diet programs energy balance, metabolism and behavior in adulthood. Neuroendocrinology 2011;93(1):1–8. doi: 10.1159/000322038
  • Ashwood P, Krakowiak P, Hertz-Picciotto I, Hansen R, Pessah IN, Van de Water J. Altered T cell responses in children with autism. Brain Behav Immun 2011;25(5):840–9. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2010.09.002
  • Ashwood P, Krakowiak P, Hertz-Picciotto I, Hansen R, Pessah IN, Van de Water J. Associations of impaired behaviors with elevated plasma chemokines in autism spectrum disorders. J Neuroimmunol 2011;232(1–2):196–9. doi: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2010.10.025
  • Won H, Mah W, Kim E. Autism spectrum disorder causes, mechanisms, and treatments: focus on neuronal synapses. Front Mol Neurosci 2013;6:19. doi: 10.3389/fnmol.2013.00019
  • Chugani DC, Muzik O, Behen M, Rothermel R, Janisse JJ, Lee J, et al. Developmental changes in brain serotonin synthesis capacity in autistic and nonautistic children. Ann Neurol 1999;45(3):287–95. doi: 10.1002/1531-8249(199903)45:3<287::AID-ANA3>3.0.CO;2-9
  • Picciano MF. Pregnancy and lactation: physiological adjustments, nutritional requirements and the role of dietary supplements. J Nutr 2003;133(6):1997S–2002S. doi: 10.1093/jn/133.6.1997S
  • Greenblatt JM, Huffman LC, Reiss AL. Folic acid in neurodevelopment and child psychiatry. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1994;18(4):647–60. doi: 10.1016/0278-5846(94)90074-4
  • Ramaekers VT, Blau N, Sequeira JM, Nassogne MC, Quadros EV. Folate receptor autoimmunity and cerebral folate deficiency in low-functioning autism with neurological deficits. Neuropediatrics 2007;38(6):276–81. doi: 10.1055/s-2008-1065354
  • James SJ, Melnyk S, Fuchs G, Reid T, Jernigan S, Pavliv O, et al. Efficacy of methylcobalamin and folinic acid treatment on glutathione redox status in children with autism. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89(1):425–30. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2008.26615
  • Julvez J, Fortuny J, Mendez M, Torrent M, Ribas-Fitó N, Sunyer J. Maternal use of folic acid supplements during pregnancy and four-year-old neurodevelopment in a population-based birth cohort. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2009;23(3):199–206. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3016.2009.01032.x
  • Roza SJ, van Batenburg-Eddes T, Steegers EaP, Jaddoe VWV, Mackenbach JP, Hofman A, et al. Maternal folic acid supplement use in early pregnancy and child behavioural problems: the generation R study. Br J Nutr 2010;103(3):445–52. doi: 10.1017/S0007114509991954
  • Lyall K, Constantino JN, Weisskopf MG, Roberts AL, Ascherio A, Santangelo SL. Parental social responsiveness and risk of autism spectrum disorder in offspring. JAMA Psychiatry 2014;71(8):936–42. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.476
  • Constantino JN, Davis SA, Todd RD, Schindler MK, Gross MM, Brophy SL, et al. Validation of a brief quantitative measure of autistic traits: comparison of the social responsiveness scale with the autism diagnostic interview-revised. J Autism Dev Disord 2003;33(4):427–33. doi: 10.1023/A:1025014929212
  • Kawamura Y, Takahashi O, Ishii T. Reevaluating the incidence of pervasive developmental disorders: impact of elevated rates of detection through implementation of an integrated system of screening in Toyota, Japan. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2008;62(2):152–9. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1819.2008.01748.x
  • Paula CS, Ribeiro SH, Fombonne E, Mercadante MT. Brief report: prevalence of pervasive developmental disorder in Brazil: a pilot study. J Autism Dev Disord 2011;41(12):1738–42. doi: 10.1007/s10803-011-1200-6
  • Altevogt BM, Hanson SL, Leshner AI. Autism and the environment: challenges and opportunities for research. Pediatrics 2008;121:1225–29. doi: 10.1542/peds.2007-3000
  • Bernard S, Enayati A, Redwood L, Roger H, Binstock T. Autism: a novel form of mercury poisoning. Med Hypotheses 2001;56(4):462–71. doi: 10.1054/mehy.2000.1281
  • Wenk MR. The emerging field of lipidomics, Nat Rev Drug Discovery 2005;4:594–610. doi: 10.1038/nrd1776
  • Sowell ER, Thompson PM, Holmes CJ, Batth R, Jernigan TL, Toga AW. Localizing age-related changes in brain structure between childhood and adolescence using statistical parametric mapping. Neuroimage 1999;9(6 I):587–97. doi: 10.1006/nimg.1999.0436
  • Giedd JN, Lalonde FM, Celano MJ, White SL, Wallace GL, Lee NR, et al. Anatomical brain magnetic resonance imaging of typically developing children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2009;48(5):465–70. doi: 10.1097/CHI.0b013e31819f2715
  • Luchtman DW, Song C. Cognitive enhancement by omega,3 fatty acids from child-hood to old age: findings from animal and clinical studies. Neuropharmacology 2013;64:550–65. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.07.019
  • Karimi P, Kamali E, Mousavi SM, Karahmadi M. Environmental factors influencing the risk of autism. J Res Med Sci 2017;22:27. doi: 10.4103/1735-1995.200272
  • Gardener H, Spiegelman D, Buka SL. Prenatal risk factors for autism: comprehensive meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 2009;195(1):7–14. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.108.051672
  • Ornoy A, Weinstein-Fudim L, Ergaz Z. Prenatal factors associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Reprod Toxicol 2015 Aug 15;56:155–69. doi: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2015.05.007
  • Ratnayake U, Quinn T, Walker DW, Dickinson H. Cytokines and the neurodevelopmental basis of mental illness. Front Neurosci 2013;7:180. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2013.00180
  • Daniels JL, Forssen U, Hultman CM, Cnattingius S, Savitz Da, Feychting M, et al. Parental psychiatric disorders associated with autism spectrum disorders in the offspring. Pediatrics.2008;121(5):e1357–62. doi: 10.1542/peds.2007-2296
  • Perera F, Herbstman J. Prenatal environmental exposures, epigenetics, and disease. Reprod Toxicol 2011;31(3):363–73. doi: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2010.12.055
  • Bronson SL, Bale TL. The placenta as a mediator of stress effects on neurodevelopmental reprogramming. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016;41(1):207–18. doi: 10.1038/npp.2015.231
  • Shelton JF, Geraghty EM, Tancredi DJ, Delwiche LD, Schmidt RJ, Ritz B, et al. Neurodevelopmental disorders and prenatal residential proximity to agricultural pesticides: the charge study. Environ Health Perspect 2014;122(10):1103–9. doi: 10.1289/ehp.1307044
  • Gurney JG, McPheeters ML, Davis MM. Parental report of health conditions and health care use among children with and without autism: national survey of children’s health. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2006;160(8):825–30. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.160.8.825
  • Lyall K, Van de Water J, Ashwood P, Hertz-Picciotto I. Asthma and allergies in children with autism spectrum disorders: results from the CHARGE study. Autism Res 2015;8(5):567–74. doi: 10.1002/aur.1471
  • Postorino V, Sanges V, Giovagnoli G, Fatta LM, De Peppo L, Armando M, et al. Clinical differences in children with autism spectrum disorder with and without food selectivity. Appetite 2015;92:126–32. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2015.05.016
  • Berry RC, Novak P, Withrow N, Schmidt B, Rarback S, Feucht S, et al. Nutrition management of gastrointestinal symptoms in children with autism spectrum disorder: guideline from an expert panel. J Acad Nutr Diet 2015;115(12):1919–27. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2015.05.016
  • Cornish E. Gluten and casein free diets in autism: a study of the effects on food choice and nutrition. J Hum Nutr Diet 2002;15(4):261–9. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-277X.2002.00372.x
  • Evans EW, Must A, Anderson SE, Curtin C, Scampini R, Maslin M, et al. Dietary patterns and body mass index in children with autism and typically developing children. Res Autism Spectr Disord 2012;6(1):399–405. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2011.06.014
  • Levy SE, Hyman SL. Complementary and alternative medicine treatments for children with autism spectrum disorders. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2008;17(4):803–20. doi: 10.1016/j.chc.2008.06.004
  • Perrin JM, Coury DL, Hyman SL, Cole L, Reynolds AM, Clemons T. Complementary and alternative medicine use in a large pediatric autism sample. Pediatrics2012;130(Suppl 2):S77–82. doi: 10.1542/peds.2012-0900E
  • Nuttall JR. The plausibility of maternal toxicant exposure and nutritional status as contributing factors to the risk of autism spectrum disorders. Nutr Neurosci 2017;20(4):209–18. Ù doi: 10.1080/1028415X.2015.1103437
  • Levy SE, Mandell DS, Merhar S, Ittenbach RF, Pinto-Martin J. Use of complementary and alternative medicine among children recently diagnosed with autistic spectrum disorder. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2003;24(6):418–23. doi: 10.1097/00004703-200312000-00003
  • Millward C, Ferriter M, Calver S, Connell-Jones G. Gluten- and casein-free diets for autistic spectrum disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008;16;(2):CD003498.
  • Mousain-Bosc M, Roche M, Polge A, Pradal-Prat D, Rapin J, Bali JP. Improvement of neurobehavioral disorders in children supplemented with magnesium-vitamin B6: II. Pervasive developmental disorder-autism. Magnes Res 2006;19(1):53–62.
  • Srinivasan P. A review of dietary interventions in autism. Ann Clin Psychiatry 2009;21(4):237–47.
  • Jia F, Wang B, Shan L, Xu Z, Staal WG, Du L. Core symptoms of autism improved after vitamin D supplementation. Pediatrics 2015;135(1):e196–8. doi: 10.1542/peds.2014-2121
  • Saad K, Abdel-Rahman AA, Elserogy YM, Al-Atram AA, Cannell JJ, Bjørklund G, et al. Vitamin D status in autism spectrum disorders and the efficacy of vitamin D supplementation in autistic children. Nutr Neurosci 2016;19(8):346–51. doi: 10.1179/1476830515Y.0000000019
  • Ucuz II, Dursun OB, Esin IS, Ozgeris FB, Kurt N, Kiziltunc A, et al. The relationship between vitamin D, autistic spectrum disorders, and cognitive development: do glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor play a role in this relationship? Int J Dev Disabil 2015;61(4):222–30. doi: 10.1179/2047387714Y.0000000054
  • Azzam HME, Sayyah H, Youssef S, Lotfy H, Abdelhamid IA, Abd Elhamed HA, et al. Autism and vitamin D: an intervention study. Middle East Curr Psychiatry 2015;22(1):9–14. doi: 10.1097/01.XME.0000457269.05570.78
  • Herbert MR, Buckley JA. Autism and dietary therapy: case report and review of the literature. J Child Neurol 2013;28(8):975–82. doi: 10.1177/0883073813488668
  • Hergüner S, Keleşoğlu FM, Tanıdır C, Çöpür M. Ferritin and iron levels in children with autistic disorder. Eur J Pediatr 2012;171(1):143–6. doi: 10.1007/s00431-011-1506-6
  • Beard J. Iron deficiency alters brain development and functioning. J Nutr 2003;133(5 Suppl 1):1468S–72S. doi: 10.1093/jn/133.5.1468S
  • Amminger GP, Berger GE, Schäfer MR, Klier C, Friedrich MH, Feucht M. Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation in children with autism: a double-blind randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study. Biol Psychiatry 2007;61(4):551–3. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.05.007
  • Mankad D, Dupuis A, Smile S, Roberts W, Brian J, Lui T, et al. A randomized, placebo controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of young children with autism. Mol Autism 2015;6(1):18. doi: 10.1186/s13229-015-0010-7
  • Bent S, Hendren RL, Zandi T, Law K, Choi JE, Widjaja F, et al. Internet-based, randomized, controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acids for hyperactivity in autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2014;53(6):658–66. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2014.01.018
  • Posar A, Visconti P. Omega-3 supplementation in autism spectrum disorders: a still open question? J Pediatr Neurosci 2016;11(3):225. doi: 10.4103/1817-1745.193363
  • Sun C, Zou M, Zhao D, Xia W, Wu L. Efficacy of folic acid supplementation in autistic children participating in structured teaching: an open-label trial. Nutrients 2016;8(6). pii: E337. doi: 10.3390/nu8060337
  • Desai A, Sequeira JM, Quadros EV. The metabolic basis for developmental disorders due to defective folate transport. Biochimie 2016;126:31–42. doi: 10.1016/j.biochi.2016.02.012
  • Li Q, Zhou JM. The microbiota-gut-brain axis and its potential therapeutic role in autism spectrum disorder. Neuroscience 2016;324:131–9. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.03.013
  • Ho P, Ross DA. More than a gut feeling: the implications of the gut microbiota in psychiatry. Biol Psychiatry 2017;81(5): e35–e37. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.12.018
  • Thursby E, Juge N. Introduction to the human gut microbiota. Biochem J 2017;474(11):1823–36. doi: 10.1042/BCJ20160510
  • Cox LM, Weiner HL. Microbiota signaling pathways that influence neurologic disease. Neurotherapeutics; 2018 Jan;15(1):135–45. doi: 10.1007/s13311-017-0598-8
  • Qiao Y, Wu M, Feng Y, Zhou Z, Chen L, Chen F Alterations of oral microbiota distinguish children with autism spectrum disorders from healthy controls. Sci Rep 2018;8(1):1597. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-19982-y
  • Collado MC, Cernada M, Bauerl C, Vento M, Perez-Martinez G. Microbial ecology and host-microbiota interactions during early life stages. Gut Microbes 2012;3(4):352–65. doi: 10.4161/gmic.21215
  • Carlson AL, Xia K, Azcarate-Peril MA, Goldman BD, Ahn M, Styner MA, et al. Infant gut microbiome associated with cognitive development. Biol Psychiatry 2018;83(2):148–59. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.06.021
  • Shaaban SY, El Gendy YG, Mehanna NS, El-Senousy WM, El-Feki HSA, Saad K, et al. The role of probiotics in children with autism spectrum disorder: a prospective, open-label study. Nutr Neurosci 2017;1–6.
  • Cryan JF, Dinan TG. Mind-altering microorganisms: the impact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour. Natl Rev Neurosci 2012;13(10):701–12. doi: 10.1038/nrn3346
  • Bravo JA, Forsythe P, Chew M V., Escaravage E, Savignac HM, Dinan TG, et al. Ingestion of Lactobacillus strain regulates emotional behavior and central GABA receptor expression in a mouse via the vagus nerve. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011;108(38):16050–5. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1102999108
  • Berding K, Donovan SM. Microbiome and nutrition in autism spectrum disorder: current knowledge and research needs. Nutr Rev 2016;74(12):723–36. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuw048
  • Rose S, Bennuri SC, Murray KF, Buie T, Winter H, Frye RE. Mitochondrial dysfunction in the gastrointestinal mucosa of children with autism: a blinded case-control study. PLoS One 2017;12(10):e0186377. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0186377
  • Grimaldi R, Cela D, Swann JR, Vulevic J, Gibson GR, Tzortzis G, et al. In vitro fermentation of B-GOS: impact on faecal bacterial populations and metabolic activity in autistic and non-autistic children. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2017 Feb;93(2):pii fiw233. doi: 10.1093/femsec/fiw233
  • Marler S, Ferguson BJ, Lee EB, Peters B, Williams KC, McDonnell E, et al. Brief report: whole blood serotonin levels and gastrointestinal symptoms in autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 2016;46(3):1124–30.
  • Sandler RH, Finegold SM, Bolte ER, Buchanan CP, Maxwell AP, Väisänen ML, et al. Short-term benefit from oral vancomycin treatment of regressive-onset autism. J Child Neurol 2000;15(7):429–35. doi: 10.1177/088307380001500701
  • Ding HT, Taur Y, Walkup JT. Gut microbiota and autism: key concepts and findings. J Autism Dev Disord 2017;47(2):480–89. doi: 10.1007/s10803-016-2960-9
  • Rieder R, Wisniewski PJ, Alderman BL, Campbell SC. Microbes and mental health: a review. Brain Behav Immun 2017;66:9–17. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2017.01.016
  • Luna RA, Oezguen N, Balderas M, Venkatachalam A, Runge JK, Versalovic J, et al. Distinct microbiome-neuroimmune signatures correlate with functional abdominal pain in children with autism spectrum disorder. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2017;3(2):218–30. doi: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2016.11.008
  • Kang DW, Park JG, Ilhan ZE, Wallstrom G, LaBaer J, Adams JB, et al. Reduced incidence of prevotella and other fermenters in intestinal microflora of autistic children. PLoS One 2013;8(7): e68322.
  • Finegold SM. Desulfovibrio species are potentially important in regressive autism. Med Hypotheses 2011;77(2):270–4. doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2011.04.032
  • Song Y, Liu C, Finegold SM. Real-time PCR quantitation of clostridia in feces of autistic children real-time PCR quantitation of clostridia in feces of autistic children. Appl Enviromental Microbiol 2004;70(11):6459–65. doi: 10.1128/AEM.70.11.6459-6465.2004
  • Son JS, Zheng LJ, Rowehl LM, Tian X, Zhang Y, Zhu W, et al. Comparison of fecal microbiota in children with autism spectrum disorders and neurotypical siblings in the simons simplex collection. PLoS One 2015;10(10): e0137725.
  • Williams BL, Hornig M, Parekh T, Ian Lipkin W. Application of novel PCR-based methods for detection, quantitation, and phylogenetic characterization of Sutterella species in intestinal biopsy samples from children with autism and gastrointestinal disturbances. MBio 2012;3(1):1–11. doi: 10.1128/mBio.00261-11
  • Wang L, Christophersen CT, Sorich MJ, Gerber JP, Angley MT, Conlon MA. Increased abundance of Sutterella spp. and Ruminococcus torques in feces of children with autism spectrum disorder. Mol Autism 2013;4(1):42. doi: 10.1186/2040-2392-4-42
  • Zhu X, Han Y, Du J, Liu R, Jin K, Yi W. Microbiota-gut-brain axis and the central nervous system. Oncotarget 2017;8(32):53829–38.
  • Strati F, Cavalieri D, Albanese D, De Felice C, Donati C, Hayek J, et al. New evidences on the altered gut microbiota in autism spectrum disorders. Microbiome 2017;5(1):24. doi: 10.1186/s40168-017-0242-1
  • Mulle JG, Sharp WG, Cubells JF. The gut microbiome: a new frontier in autism research. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2013;15(2):337. doi: 10.1007/s11920-012-0337-0
  • Chassaing B, Van De Wiele T, De Bodt J, Marzorati M, Gewirtz AT. Dietary emulsifiers directly alter human microbiota composition and gene expression ex vivo potentiating intestinal inflammation. Gut 2017;66(8):1414–27. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2016-313099
  • Sarkar A, Lehto SM, Harty S, Dinan TG, Cryan JF, Burnet PW. Psychobiotics and the manipulation of bacteria-gut-brain signals. Trends Neurosci 2016 Nov;39(11):763–81. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2016.09.002
  • Dai C, Zheng C-Q, Jiang M, Ma X-Y, Jiang L-J. Probiotics and irritable bowel syndrome. World J Gastroenterol 2013;19(36):5973–80. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v19.i36.5973
  • Guandalini S. Are probiotics or prebiotics useful in pediatric irritable bowel syndrome or inflammatory bowel disease? Front Med (Lausanne) 2014;1:23.
  • West, R., Roberts, E., Sichel, L. S., and Sichel, J. Improvements ingastrointestinal symptoms among children with autism spectrum disorderreceiving the Delpro R probiotic and immunomodulatory formulation. J Prob Health 2013;1:102.
  • Tomova A, Husarova V, Lakatosova S, Bakos J, Vlkova B, Babinska K, et al. Gastrointestinal microbiota in children with autism in Slovakia. Physiol Behav 2015;138:179–87. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.10.033
  • Shaaban SY, El Gendy YG, Mehanna NS, El-Senousy WM, El-Feki HSA, Saad K, et al. The role of probiotics in children with autism spectrum disorder: A prospective, open-label study. Nutr Neurosci 2017;76:1–6.
  • Grossi E, Melli S, Dunca D, Terruzzi V. Unexpected improvement in core autism spectrum disorder symptoms after long-term treatment with probiotics. SAGE Open Med Case Reports 2016;4:2050313X1666623. doi: 10.1177/2050313X16666231
  • Hsiao EY, McBride SW, Hsien S, Sharon G, Hyde ER, McCue T, et al. Microbiota modulate behavioral and physiological abnormalities associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. Cell 2013;155(7):1451–63. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2013.11.024
  • Erny D, De Angelis ALH, Jaitin D, Wieghofer P, Staszewski O, David E, et al. Host microbiota constantly control maturation and function of microglia in the CNS. Nat Neurosci 2015;18(7):965–77. doi: 10.1038/nn.4030
  • Bilbo SD, Block CL, Bolton JL, Hanamsagar R, Tran PK. Beyond infection – maternal immune activation by environmental factors, microglial development, and relevance for autism spectrum disorders. Exp Neurol 2018;299(Pt A):241–51. doi: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2017.07.002
  • Barnhill K, Gutierrez A. Analysis of dietary intake and nutritional status in children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Open Access 2015;5(3). doi: 10.4172/2165-7890.1000154

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.