Mediated mobilisation after the Arab Spring: how online activism is shaping Bahrain’s opposition

References

• Abdul-Nabi, Zainab. 2015. “Based on the Peace Journalism Model: Analysis of Al-Jazeera’s Coverage of Bahrain’s Uprising and Syria’s Chemical Attack.” Global Media and Communication 11 (3): 271–302. doi: 10.1177/1742766515606300
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmed, Samah. 2016. “Social Media and Political Change in the Gulf.” In Social Media in the Arab World: Communication and Public Opinion in the Gulf States, edited by Barrie Gunter, Mokhtar Elareshi, and Khalid Al-Jaber, 202–221. London: I.B. Tauris.
   Google Scholar
• Albrecht, Holger. 2013. Raging Against the Machine: Political Opposition Under Authoritarianism in Egypt. New York: Syracuse University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Aouragh, Miriyam, and Anne Alexander. 2011. “The Egyptian Experience: Sense and Nonsense of the Internet Revolution.” International Journal of Communication 5: 1344–1358.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bahrain Mirror. 2017. “Appeals Court: Sentences Reaching 10 Years in Jail Against Suspects Accused of Joining Feb. 14 Coalition.” February 16. http://bahrainmirror.com/en/news/36691.html.
   Google Scholar
• BBC News. 2014. “Bahrain Opposition Leader Sheikh Ali Salman Arrested.” December 28. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-30620615.
   Google Scholar
• Bennett, W. Lance, and Alexandra Segerberg. 2012. “Digital Media and the Personalization of Collective Action.” In Social Media and Democracy: Innovations in Participatory Politics, edited by Brian Loader, and Dan Mercea, 770–799. Oxford: Taylor and Francis.
   Google Scholar
• Davidson, Christopher. 2012. After the Sheikhs: The Coming Collapse of the Gulf Monarchies. London: C. Hurst.
   Google Scholar
• Hassan, Mohamed. 2015. “The Dilemmas of Bahrain’s Opposition Group Alwefaq: Between Fragmentation and an Underground Movement.” Global Voices, May 5.  https://globalvoices.org/2015/05/05/the-dilemmas-of-bahrains-opposition-group-alwefaq-between-fragmentation-and-an-underground-movement/.
   Google Scholar
• Howard, Philip N., and Muzammil M. Hussain. 2011. “The Upheavals in Egypt and Tunisia: The Role of Digital Media.” Journal of Democracy 22 (3): 35–48. doi: 10.1353/jod.2011.0041
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khalaf, Amal. 2013. “Squaring the Circle: Bahrain’s Pearl Roundabout.” Middle East Critique 22 (3): 265–280. doi: 10.1080/19436149.2013.822240
   Google Scholar
• Khatib, Lina. 2012. Image Politics in the Middle East: The Role of the Visual in Political Struggle. London: IB Tauris.
   Google Scholar
• Lievrouw, Leah A. 2011. Alternative and Activist New Media. Cambridge: Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Louër, Laurence. 2014. “Activism in Bahrain: Between Sectarianism and Issue Politics.” In Taking to the Streets: The Transformation of Arab Activism, edited by Lina Khatib, and Ellen Lust, 172–198. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Machlis, Elisheva. 2016. “Al-Wefaq and the February 14 Uprising: Islam, Nationalism and Democracy- The Shiʿi-Bahraini Discourse.” Middle Eastern Studies 52 (6): 978–995. doi: 10.1080/00263206.2016.1198327
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meijer, Roel, and Maarten Danckaert. 2015. “Bahrain: The Dynamics of a Conflict.” In Arab Spring: Negotiating in the Shadow of the Intifadat, edited by William Zartman, 209–248. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
   Google Scholar
• Moore-Gilbert, Kylie. 2016. “From Protected State to Protection Racket: Contextualising Divide and Rule in Bahrain.” Journal of Arabian Studies 6 (2): 163–181. doi: 10.1080/21534764.2016.1247521
   Google Scholar
• Moore-Gilbert, Kylie. 2018a. “A Visual Uprising: Framing the Online Activism of Bahrain’s Shiʿi Opposition.” Media, War & Conflict 10 (3): 1–23.
   Google Scholar
• Moore-Gilbert, Kylie. 2018b. “The Rise and Fall of Bahrain’s al-Wefaq Society: De-democratisation and Crackdown in a Troubled Gulf State.” In New Opposition in the Middle East, edited by Shahram Akbarzadeh, and Dara Conduit. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• New York Times. 2017. “Bahrain Moves to Dissolve Major Opposition Group.” March 6.  www.nytimes.com/2017/03/06/world/middleeast/bahrain-opposition-crackdown-shiite-sunni.html.
   Google Scholar
• Segerberg, Alexandra, and W. Lance Bennett. 2011. “Social Media and the Organization of Collective Action: Using Twitter to Explore the Ecologies of Two Climate Change Protests.” The Communication Review 14: 197–215. doi: 10.1080/10714421.2011.597250
   Google Scholar
• Shehabi, Ala’a. 2016. “Inviolable Sheikhs and Radical Subjects: Bahrain’s Cyclical Sovereignty Crisis.” Arab Studies Journal 24 (1): 228–253.
   Google Scholar
• The Guardian. 2016. “Bahrain Court Orders Shia Opposition Group to be Dissolved.” July 18. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/17/bahrain-al-wefaq-shia-opposition-group-sunni.
   Google Scholar
• Wehrey, Frederic M. 2014. Sectarian Politics in the Gulf: From the Iraq War to the Arab Uprisings. New York: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, Brian. 2006. “Ethnography, the Internet, and Youth Culture: Strategies for Examining Social Resistance and ‘Online-offline’ Relationships.” Canadian Journal of Education 29 (1): 307–328. doi: 10.2307/20054158
   Google Scholar