Effects of Flooding on the Sources, Spatiotemporal Characteristics and Human Health Risks of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Floodplain Soils of the Lower Parts of the River Niger, Nigeria

References

• C. Klok, P. W. Goedhart, and B. Vandecasteele, “Field Effects of Pollutants in Dynamic Environments. A Case Study on Earthworm Populations in River Floodplains Contaminated with Heavy Metals,” Environment Pollution 147, no. 1 (2007): 26–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D. V. Malmon, T. Dunne, and S. L. Reneau, “Predicting the Fate of Sediment and Pollutants in River Floodplains,” Environmental Science and Technology 36 no. 9 (2002): 2026–2032.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Y. Yang, B. Ligouis, C. Pies, C. Achten, and T. Hofmann, “Slow and Very Slow Desorption of PAHs from River Floodplain Soils: Coal and Coal-Derived Particles,” Geophysical Research Abstracts 8, (2006): 03626. Retrieved from: http://meetings.copernicus.org/www.cosis.net/abstracts/EGU06/03626/EGU06-J-03626.pdf (last accessed on 16 October 2017).
   Google Scholar
• H. Zhao, C. Yin, M. Chen, W. Wang, C. Jefferies, and B. Shan, “Size Distribution and Diffuse Pollution Impacts of PAHs in Street Dust in Urban Streams in the Yangtze River Delta,” Journal of Environmental Sciences 21, (2009): 162–167.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• B. Yang, N. Xue, L. Zhou, F. Li, X. Cong, B. Han, H. Li, Y. Yan, and B. Liu, “Risk Assessment and Sources of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Agricultural Soils of Huanghuai Plain, China,” Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 84, (2012): 304–310.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Z. D. Parrish, M. K. Banks, and A. P. Schwab, “Effectiveness of Phytoremediation as a Secondary Treatment for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Composted Soil,” International Journal of Phytoremediation 6, no. 2, (2004): 119–137.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• T. Ciesielczuk, G. Kusza, and J. Poluszyńska, “Assessment of PAHs and the Total Content of Organic Matter in Landfill Leachate and Groundwater,” Ecological Chemistry and Engineering 13, no. 11 (2006): 1225–1230.
   Google Scholar
• T. Ciesielczuk, G. Kusza, J. Poluszyńska, and K. Kochanowska, “Pollution of Flooded Arable Soils with Heavy Metals and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons,” Water, Air and Soil Pollution 225, (2014): 2145. doi: 10.1007/s11270-014-2145-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• W. Wilcke, S. Müller, N. Kanchanakool, C. Niamskul, and W. Zech, “Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Hydromorphic Soils of the Tropical Metropolis Bangkok,” Geoderma 91, (1999): 297–309.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• G. O. Tesi, C. M. A. Iwegbue, F. N. Emuh, and G. E. Nwajei, “Ladgo Dam Flood Disaster of 2012: An Assessment of the Concentrations, Sources, and Risks of PAHs in Floodplain Soils of the Lower Reaches of River Niger, Nigeria,” Journal of Environmental Quality 45, (2016): 305–314.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• J. Y. Cho, J. G. Son, B. J. Park, and B. Y. Chung, “Distribution and Pollution Sources of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Reclaimed Tidelands and Tidelands of the Western Sea Coast of South Korea,” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 149, (2009): 385–393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• K. Hilscherova, L. Dusek, V. Kubik, P. Cupr, J. Hofman, J. Klanova, and I. Holoubek, “Redistribution of Organic Pollutants in River Sediments and Alluvial Soils Related to Major Floods,” Journal of Soils and Sediments 7, no. 3 (2007): 167–177.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• C. Pies, Y. Yang, and T. Hofmann, “Distribution of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Floodplain Soils of the Mosel and Saar River,” Journal of Soils and Sediments 7, no. 4 (2007): 216–222.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• L. F. Ping, Y. M. Luo, H. B. Zhang, Q. B. Li, and L. H. Wu, “Distribution of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Thirty Typical Soil Profiles in the Yangtze River Delta Region, East China,” Environmental Pollution 147, (2007): 358–365.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• F. Sartori, T. L. Wade, J. L. Sericano, and B. P. Mohanty, “Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Soil of the Canadian River Floodplain in Oklahoma,” Journal Of Environmental Quality 39, (2010): 568–579.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• J. Wang, J. Bai, Q. Zhao, Q. Lu, and Z. Xia, “Five-Year Changes in Soil Organic Carbon and Total Nitrogen in Coastal Wetlands Affected by Flow-Sediment Regulation in a Chinese Delta,” Scientific Reports 6, (2016): 21137. doi: 10.1038/srep21137.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• B. Witter, M. Winkler, and K. Friese, “Depth Distribution of Chlorinated and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Floodplain Soils of the River Elbe,” Acta Hydrochimica et Hydrobiologica 31, no. 4–5 (2003): 411–422.
   Google Scholar
• Y. Yang, B. Ligouis, C. Pies, P. Grathwohl, and T. Hofmann, “Occurrence of Coal and Coal-Derived Particle-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a River Floodplain Soil,” Environmental Pollution 151, (2008): 121–129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Z. Yang, L. Wang, J. Niu, J. Wang, and Z. Shen, “Pollution Assessment and Source Identifications of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Sediments of the Yellow River Delta, a Newly Born Wetland in China,” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 158, (2009): 561–571.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• C. M. A. Iwegbue, G. O. Tesi, L. C. Overah, G. E. Nwajei, and B. S. Martincigh, “Chemical Fractionation and Mobility of Metals in Floodplain Soils of the Lower Reaches of the River Niger, Nigeria,” Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa (2017).doi: 10.1080/0035919x.2017.1361483.
   Google Scholar
• USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund. Volume 1: Human Health Evaluation Manual (F, Supplemental Guidance for Inhalation Risk Assessment) EPA/540/R/070/002 (Washington, DC: Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation, 2009).
   Google Scholar
• USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund. Volume 1: Human Health Evaluation Manual EPA/se0/1-89/002 (Washington, DC: Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, 1989).
   Google Scholar
• J. Harmsen, W. H. Rulkens, R. C. Sims, P. E. Rijtema, and A. J. Zweers. “Theory and Application of Landfarming to Remediate Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Mineral Oil-Contaminated Sediments; Beneficial Reuse,” Journal of Environmental Quality 36, (2007): 1112–1122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• G. M. Pierzynski, J. T. Sims, and G. F. Vance, Soils and Environmental Quality, 2nd ed. (London, United Kingdom: CRC Press, 2000).
   Google Scholar
• A. F. Wick, N. W. Haus, B. F. Sukkariyah, K. C. Haering, and W. L. Daniels, Remediation of PAH Contaminated Soils and Sediment. A Literature Review. (Blacksburg, VA, USA: Department of Crop and Soil Environmental Sciences,Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2011). Available at: http://landrehab.org (last accessed on 16 October 2017).
   Google Scholar
• L. Chen, Y. Ran, B. Xing, B. Mai, J. He, X. Wei, J. Fu, and G. Sheng, “Contents and Sources of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Organochlorine Pesticides in Vegetable Soils of Guangzhou, China,” Chemosphere 60, (2005): 879–890.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• E. Morillo, A. S. Romero, L. Madrid, J. Villaverde, and C. Maqueda, “Characterization and Sources of PAHs and Potentially Toxic Metals in Urban Environments of Sevilla (Southern Spain),” Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 187, (2008): 41–51.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R. Xiao, J. Bai, J. Wang, O. Lu, Q. Zhao, B. Cui, and X. Liu, “Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Wetland Soils Under Different Land Uses in a Coastal Estuary: Toxic Levels, Sources and Relationships with Soil Organic Matter and Water-Stable Aggregates,” Chemosphere 110, (2014): 8–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• A. A. Olajire, R. Altenburger, E. Küster, and W. Brack, “Chemical and Ecotoxicological Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon-Contaminated Sediments of the Niger Delta, Southern Nigeria,” The Science of the Total Environment 340, (2005); 123–136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O. S. S. Sojinu, J.-Z. Wang, O. O. Sonibare, and E. Y. Zeng, “Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Sediments and Soils from Oil Exploration Areas of the Niger Delta, Nigeria,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 174, (2010): 641–647.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• T. Agarwal, P. S. Khillare, V. Shridhar, and S. Ray, “Pattern, Sources and Toxic Potential of PAHs in Agricultural Soils of Delhi, India,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 163, (2009): 1033–1039.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• W. Wilcke, “Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Soil – A Review,” Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 163, (2000): 229–243.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Y. F. Jiang, X. T. Wang, F. Wang, Y. Jia, M. H. Wu, G. Y. Sheng, and J. M. Fu, “Levels, Composition Profiles and Sources of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Urban Soil of Shanghai, China,” Chemosphere 75, (2009): 1112–1118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• H. B. Zhang, Y. M. Luo, M. H. Wong, Q. G. Zhao, and G. L. Zhang, “Distributions and Concentrations of PAHs in Hong Kong Soils,” Environmental Pollution 141, (2006): 107–114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• J. J. Nam, B. H. Song, K. C. Eom, S. H. Lee, and A. Smith, “Distribution of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Agricultural Soils in South Korea,” Chemosphere 50, (2003): 1281–1289.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• J. Xu, S. Yang, S. Peng, Q. Wei, and X. Gao, “Solubility and Leaching Risks of Organic Carbon in Paddy Soils as Affected by Irrigation Managements,” The Scientific World Journal Article ID 546750 (2013): 9.
   Google Scholar
• R. Aerts and F. Ludwig, “Water-Table Changes and Nutritional Status Affect Trace Gas Emissions from Laboratory Columns of Peatland Soils,” Soil Biology and Biochemistry 29, (1997): 1691–1698.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• E. M. Morrissey, J. L. Gillespie, J. C. Morina, and R. B. Franklin, “Salinity Affects Microbial Activity and Soil Organic Matter Content in Tidal Wetlands,” Global Change Biology 20, (2014): 1351–1362.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D. N. Rietz and R. J. Haynes, “Effects of Irrigation-induced Salinity and Sodicity on Soil Microbial Activity,” Soil Biology and Biochemistry 35, (2003): 845–854.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• J. Li, X. Shang, Z. Zhao, R. L. Tanguay, Q. Dong, and C. Huang, “Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Water, Sediment, Soil, and Plants of the Aojiang River Waterway in Wenzhow, China,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 173, (2010): 75–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• J. J. Nam, G. O. Thomas, F. M. Jaward, E. Steinnes, O. Gustafsson, and K. C. Jones, “PAHs in Background Soils from Western Europe: Influence of Atmospheric Deposition and Soil Organic Matter,” Chemosphere 70, (2008): 1596–1602.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• C. Peng, W. Chen, X. Liao, M. Wang, Z. Ouyang, W. Jiao, and Y. Bai, “Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Urban Soils of Beijing: Status, Sources, Distribution and Potential Risk,” Environmental Pollution 159, (2011): 802–808.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Z. Wang, J. Chen, X. Qiao, P. Yang, F. Tian, and L. Huang, “Distribution and Sources of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Urban to Rural Soils: A Case Study in Dalian, China,” Chemosphere 68, (2007): 965–971.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• S. Orecchio, “Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Soil of a Natural Reserve (Isola delle Femmine) (Italy) Located in Front of a Plant for the Production of Cement,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 173, (2010): 358–368.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R. Olawoyin, R. L. Grayson, and O. T. Okareh, “Eco-toxicological and Epidemiological Assessment of Human Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Niger Delta, Nigeria,” Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences 4, no. 3 (2012): 173–185.
   Google Scholar
• Netherlands Ministry of Housing and Environment, Environmental Quality Objectives in the Netherlands: A Review of Environmental Quality Objectives and their Policy Framework in the Netherlands. Risk Assessment and Environmental Quality Division (Netherlands: Directorate for Chemicals, External Safety and Radiation Protection, Ministry of Housing Spatial Planning and the Environment, 1994).
   Google Scholar
• Y. B. Man, Y. Kang, H. S. Wang, W. Lau, H. Li, X. L. Sun, J. P. Geisy, K. L. Chow, and M. H. Wong, “Cancer Risk Assessments of Hong Kong Soils Contaminated by Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons,” Journal Hazardous Materials 261, (2013): 770–776.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• W. Wang, M. Huang, Y. Kang, H. Wang, A. O. W. Leung, K. C. Cheung, and M. H. Wong, “Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Urban Surface Dust of Guangzhou, China: Status, Sources and Human Health Risk Assessment,” Science of the Total Environment 409, no. 21 (2011): 4519–4527.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R. A. Doong and Y. T. Lin, “Characterization and Distribution of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Contaminations in Surface Sediment and Water from Gao-ping River, Taiwan,” Water Research 38, (2004): 1733–1744.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D. K. Essumang, C. K. Adokoh, J. Afriyie, and E. Mensah, “Source Assessment and Analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH's) in the Oblogo Waste Disposal Sites and Some Water Bodies in and Around the Accra Metropolis of Ghana,” Journal of Water Resource and Protection 1, (2009): 456–468.
   Google Scholar
• I. G. Kavouras, P. Koutrakis, M. Tsapakis, E. Lagoudaki, E. G. Stephanou, D. Von Baer, and P. Oyola, “Source Apportionment of Urban Particulate Aliphatic and Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Using Multivariate Methods,” Environmental Science and Technology 35, (2001): 2288–2294.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• A. Semlali, A. Chafik, M. Talbi, and H. Budzinski, “Origin and Distribution of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Lagoon Ecosystems of Morocco,” The Open Environmental Pollution and Toxicology Journal 3, Suppl 1-M5 (2012): 37–46.
   Google Scholar
• H. H. Soclo, P. Garrigues, and M. Ewald, “Origin of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Coastal Marine Sediments: Case Studies in Cotonou (Benin) and Aquitaine (France) Areas,” Marine Pollution Bulletin 40, (2000): 387–96.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• M. B. Yunker, R. W. Macdonald, R. Vingarzan, R. H. Mitchell, D. Goyette, and S. Sylvestre, “PAHs in the Fraser River Basin: A Critical Appraisal of PAH Ratios as Indicators of PAH Source and Composition,” Organic Geochemistry 33, (2002): 489–515.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• C. M. A. Iwegbue, G. Obi, E. Aganbi, J. E. Ogala, O. O. Omo-Irabor, and B. S. Martincigh, “Concentrations and Health Risk Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Soils of an Urban Environment in the Niger Delta, Nigeria,” Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences 8, no. 3 (2016): 221–233.
   Google Scholar
• D. K. Lee, and T. T. T. Dong, “Toxicity and Source Assignment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Road Dust from Urban Residential Areas in a Typical Industrial City in Korea,” Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management 13, (2011): 34–42.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• M. Liu, S. B. Cheng, D. N. Ou, L. J. Hou, L. Gao, L. L. Wang, Y. S. Xie, Y. Yang, and S. Y. Xu, “Characterization, Identification of Road Dust PAHs in Central Shanghai Areas, China,” Atmospheric Environment 41, (2007): 8785–8795.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• B. R. T. Simoneit, G. Sheng, X. Chen, J. Fu, J. Zhang, and Y. Xu, “Molecular Marker Study of Extractable Organic Matter in Aerosols from Urban Areas of China,” Atmospheric Environment Part A 25, (1991): 2111–2129.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• E. García-Flores, F. T. Wakida, and J. H. Espinoza-Gomez, “Sources of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Urban Storm Water Runoff in Tijuana, Mexico,” International Journal of Environmental Research 7, no. 2 (2013): 387–394.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• H. Guo, S. C. Lee, K. F. Ho, X. M. Wang, and S. C. Zou, “Particle-Associated Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Urban Air of Hong Kong,” Atmospheric Environment 37, no. 38 (2003): 5307–5317.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• E. C. Nava-Martínez, E. Flores-García, J. H. Espinoza-Gomez, and F. T. Wakida, “Heavy Metals Pollution in the Soil of an Irregular Urban Settlement Built on a Former Dumpsite in the City of Tijuana, Mexico,” Environmental Earth Sciences 66, (2012): 1239–1245.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R. K. Larsen and J. E. Baker, “Source Apportionment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Urban Atmosphere: A Comparison of Three Methods,” Environmental Science and Technolology 37, (2003): 1873–1881.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Y. Liu, L. Chen, Q. H. Huang, W. Y. Li, Y. J. Tang, and J. F. Zhao, “Source Apportionment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Surface Sediments of the Huangpu River, Shanghai, China,” Science of the Total Environment 407, (2009): 2931–2938.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• S. Orecchio, “Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Indoor Emission from Decorative Candles,” Atmospheric Environment 45, (2011): 1888–1895.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Y. Li, F. Li, T. Zhang, G. Yang, J. Chen, and H. Wan, “Pollution Assessment, Distribution and Sources of PAHs in Agricultural Soils of Pearl River Delta – The Biggest Manufacturing Base in China,” Journal of Environmental Science and Health. Part A, Toxic/Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering 42, (2007): 1979–1987.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• H. S. Wang, P. Liang, Y. Kang, D. D. Shao, G. J. Zheng, S. C. Wu, C. K. C. Wong, and M. H. Wong, “Enrichment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Mariculture Sediments of Hong Kong. Environmental Pollution 158, (2010): 3298–3308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• S. Zhang, W. Zhang, K. Wang, Y. Shen, L. Hu, and X. Wang, “Concentration, Distribution and Source Apportionment of Atmospheric Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Southeast Suburb of Beijing, China,” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 151, (2009): 197–207.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• M. M. Duval and S. K. Friedlander, “Source Resolution of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Los Angeles Atmosphere” (Report No EPA-600/2-81-161, Application of CMB with First Order Decay, USEPA, 1981).
   Google Scholar
• S. Ray, P. S. Khillare, T. Agarwal, and V. Shridhar, “Assessment of PAHs in Soils Around the International Airport in Delhi, India,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 156, (2008): 9–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• B. Han, Z. Bai, G. Guo, F. Wang, F. Li, Q. Liu, Y. Ji, X. Li, and Y. Hu, “Characterization of PM10 Fraction of Road Dust for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) from Anshan, China,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 170, (2009): 939–940.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• N. R. Khalili, P. A. Scheff, and T. M. Holsen, “PAH Source Fingerprints for Coke Ovens, Diesel and Gasoline Engines, Highway Tunnels, and Wood Combustion Emissions,” Atmospheric Environment 29, no. 4 (1995): 533–542.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• W. F. Rogge, L. M. Hildemann, M. A. Mazurek, G. R. Cass, and B. R. T. Simoneit, “Sources of Fine Organic Aerosol. Natural Gas Home Appliances,” Environmental Science and Technology 27, (1993): 2736–27 44.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• M. F. Simcik, S. J. Eisenreich, and P. J. Lioy, “Source Apportionment and Source/Sink Relationships of PAHs in the Coastal Atmosphere of Chicago and Lake Michigan,” Atmospheric Environment 33, no. 30 (1999): 5071–5078.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• M. B. Fernandes, M.-A. Sicre, A. Boireau, and J. Tronczynski, “Polyaromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) Distributions in the Seine River and its Estuary,” Marine Pollution Bulletin 34, (1997): 857–867.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• L. Wang, Z. Yang, J. Niu, and J. Wang, “Characterization, Ecological Risk Assessment and Source Diagnostics of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Water Column of the Yellow River Delta, One of the Most Plenty Biodiversity Zones in the World,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 169, (2009): 460–465.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• T. T. T. Dong and B. K. Lee, “Characteristics, Toxicity, and Source Apportionment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Road Dust of Ulsan, Korea,” Chemosphere 74, (2009): 1245–1253.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• X. Wan, J. Chen, F. Tian, W. Sun, F. Yang, and K. Saiki, “Source apportionment of PAHs in atmospheric particulates of Dalian: factor analysis with negative constraints and emission inventory analysis,” Atmospheric Environment 40, (2006): 6666–6675.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R. M. Harrison, D. J. T. Smith, and L. Luhana, “Source Apportionment of Atmospheric Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Collected from an Urban Location in Birmingham, U.K,” Environmental Science and Technology 30, (1996): 825–832.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• W. L. Ma, L. Y. Liu, H. Qi, Z. F. Zhang, W. W. Song, J. M. Shen, Z. L. Chen, N. Q. Ren, J. Grabuski, and Y. F. Li, “Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Water, Sediment and Soil of the Songhua River Basin, China,” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 185, (2013): 8399–8409.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• B. L. Van Drooge and P. P. Ballesta, “Seasonal and Daily Source Apportionment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Concentrations in PM10 in a Semirural European Area,” Environmental Science and Technology 43, (2009): 7310–7316.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• W. Wang, M. J. Huang, C.-Y. Chan, K. C. Cheung, and M. H. Wong, “Risk Assessment of Non-Dietary Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) via House PM2.5, TSP and Dust and the Implications from Human Hair,” Atmospheric Environment 73, (2013): 204–213.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• X. J. Luo, S. J. Chen, B. X. Mai, Q. S. Yang, G. Y. Sheng, and J. M. Fu, “Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Suspended Particulate Matter and Sediments from the Pearl River Estuary and Adjacent Coastal Areas, China,” Environmental Pollution 139, (2006): 9–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• B. M. Jenkins, A. D. Jones, S. Q. Turn, and R. B. Williams, “Emission Factors of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Biomass Burning,” Environmental Science and Technology 30, (1996):2462–2469.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), Regional Screening Level Table (RSL) for Chemical Contaminants at Superfund Sites (Washington, D.C.: United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2011).
   Google Scholar
• C. M. A. Iwegbue, U. A. Onyonyewoma, F. I. Bassey, G. E. Nwajei, B. S. Martincigh, “Concentrations and health risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in some brands of biscuits in Nigerian Market,” Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 21, (2015): 338–357.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• USDOE (United States Department of Energy), The Risk Assessment Information System (RAIS) (Oak Ridge, TN, USA: U.S. Department of Energy's Oak Ridge Operations Office (ORO), 2011).
   Google Scholar
• USEPA, Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund. Volume 1: Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part E, Supplemental Guidance for Defined Risk Assessment). EPA/540/R/99/005.7 (Washington, DC, USA: Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2001).
   Google Scholar
• USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), Risk assessment guidance for superfund. Volume 1: Human Health Evaluation Manual (F, supplemental guidance for Inhalation Risk Assessment), https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-09/documents/rags_a.pdf (2009).
   Google Scholar
• World Bank (2014). Life expectancy data. Retrieved from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN
   Google Scholar
• USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), Risk–based concentration Table. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 111 (Third Quarter), (1993).
   Google Scholar
• J. L. Durant, W. F. Busby Jr., A. L. Lafleur, B. W. Penman, and C. L. Crespi. “Human Cell Mutagenicity of Oxygenated, Nitrated and Unsubstituted Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Associated with Urban Aerosols,” Mutation Research 371, (1996): 123–157.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), Regional Screening Levels (RSL) Tables. In: Kansas Department of Health and Environment (KDHE)/Bureau of Environmental Remediation (BER). Risk-based Standards for Kansas (RSK) Manual, 5th version, (2010).
   Google Scholar
• T. Ciesielczuk, R. D. Cz, and T. Nabzdyjak, “Distribution of Aliphatic and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Groundwaters in the Airport Fuel Store Area,” Ecological Chemistry and Engineering 13, S4 (2006): 531–538.
   Google Scholar