Advances in the Application of X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (ESCA) Part I. Foundation and Established Methods

References

• Hertz , H. 1887 . Uber einen Einfluss des Utravioletten Lichtes auf die Electrische Entladung . Wiede-mannsche Annalen der Physik , 31 : 982
   Google Scholar
• Jammer , M. 1966 . The Conceptual Development of Quantum Mechanics , 28 New York : McGraw-Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Hoffmann , B. 1972 . Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel , New York : The Viking Press . chap. 4
   Google Scholar
• Einstein , A. 1905 . Uber einen die Erzeugung and Verwandlung des Lichtes Betreffenden Heuristischen Gesichtspunkt . Annalen der Physik , 17 : 132
   Google Scholar
• Planck , M. 1900 . Uber eine Verbesserung der Wienschen Spektralgleichung . Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft , 2 : 202
   Google Scholar
• Lewis , G. N. 1926 . The Conservation of Photons . Nature , 118 : 874
   Google Scholar
• Millikan , R. A. 1916 . A direct Photoelectric Determination of Planck's h' . Phys. Rev. , 7 : 355
   Google Scholar
• Robinson , H. 1925 . Phil. Mag. , 50 : 241
   Google Scholar
• Siegbahn , K. 1985 . Photoelectron Spectroscopy: retrospects and prospects . Royal Soc. London ,
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegbahn , K. Nordling , C. 1969 . ESCA Applied to Free Molecules , Amsterdam : North-Holland .
   Google Scholar
• Siegbahn , K. Nordling , C. 1967 . “ ESCA: atomic, molecular and solid structure studied by means of electron spectroscopy ” . In Nova Acta Regiae Soc. Sci. Vol. 4 , 20 Sweden
   Google Scholar
• The acronym “ESCA” was coined by Professor Siegbahn fairly early in the development of the spectroscopy. References 10 and 11 marked its general acceptance
   Google Scholar
• Turner , D. W. , Baker , C. , Baker , A. K. and Brundle , C. R. 1970 . Molecular Photoelectron Spectroscopy , London : Wiley-Interscience .
   Google Scholar
• Price , W. C. and Turner , D. W. 1970 . Philos. Trans. Soc. London , : A268
   Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. and Davidson , E. R. 1970 . Nature of the Configuration-Interaction Method in Ab-Initio Calculations . Phys. Rev. A , 1 : 644
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , R. L. and Shirley , D. A. 1976 . J. Chem. Phys. , 64 : 3685
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szabo , A. and Ostland , N. S. 1982 . “ Modern Quantum Chemistry, Introduction to Advanced Electronic Structure Theory ” . New York : MacMillan . chap. 3
   Google Scholar
• Koopmans , T. A. 1933 . Uber die Zuordnüng von Welten Funktionen and Eigenwerten zu den ëinzelnen Elektronen eines Atoms . Physica , 1 : 104
   Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. 1989 . Studies in Differential Charging . J. Vac. Sci. Technol. , A7 : 1677
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. 1990 . “ Applications of Electron Spectroscopy to Heterogeneous Catalysis ” . In Practical Surface Analysis , 2nd ed. Edited by: Briggs , D. and Seah , M. P. Chichester, , England : John Wiley & Sons . chap. 8
   Google Scholar
• Lewis , R. T. and Kelly , M. A. 1980 . J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom. , 20 : 105
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. 1978 . Applications of ESCA in Industrial Research . Amer. Lab. , 10 ( 40 ) : 65
   Google Scholar
• Stephenson , D. A. and Binkowski , H. J. 1976 . J. NonCryst. Solids , 22 : 399
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner , C. D. 1980 . J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom. , 18 : 345
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hicks , R. F. 1989 . “ Characterization of Supported Metal Catalysts by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy, Characterization and Catalyst Development ” . In an Interactive Approach , Edited by: Bradley , S. A. , Gattuso , M. J. and Bertolacini , R. J. Washington, D. C. : ACS Symp. Series 411, Am. Chem. Soc. . chap. 20
   Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. 1976 . XPS As a Method for Monitoring Segregation in Alloys: Cu-Be . Chem. Phys. Lett. , 43 : 89
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. and Yin , M. P. 1989 . “ Studies of Pt-Metal Catalysis by High Resolution ESCA, in Characterization and Catalyst Developments ” . In An Interactive Approach , Edited by: Bradley , S. A. , Gattuso , M. J. and Bertolucini , R. J. Washington, D. C. : ACS Symp. Ser., 411, Am. Chem. Soc. . chap. 19
   Google Scholar
• Briggs , D. and Seah , M. P. , eds. 1990 . Practical Surface Analysis , 2nd ed. Chichester, , England : John Wiley & Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Gelius , U. and Siegbahn , K. 1972 . Faraday Discuss. Chem. Soc. , 54 : 257
   Google Scholar
• Frost , D. C. , Ishitani , A. and McDowell , C. A. 1972 . Mol. Phys. , 24 : 861
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wheeler , D. R. and Pepper , S. V. 1982 . J. Vac. Sci. Technol. , 20 : 226 Chaney, R., and Barth, G., Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem., 329, 143 (1987).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelius , U. , Basilier , E. , Svensson , S. , Bergmark , T. and Siegbahn , K. 1974 . J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom. , 2 : 405
   Google Scholar
• Kelly , M. A. and Tyler , C. E. 1972 . Hewlett-Packard J. , 24 ( 2 )
   Google Scholar
• Kelly , M. A. 1984 . More-Powerful ESCA Makes Solving Surface Problems A Lot Easier . Ind. Res. Dev. , 26 : 80
   Google Scholar
• Tonner , B. private communication.
   Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. and Lishka , M. A. 1986 . J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 108 : 3178
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelius , U. , Asplund , L. , Basilier , E. , Hedman , S. , Helenelund , K. and Siegbahn , K. 1984 . Nucl. Instrum. Methods in Phys. Res. , B1 : 85
   Google Scholar
• Gelius , U. 1990 . J. Electron Spectros. Relat. Phenom. , 52 : 747
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feibelman , P. J. and Eastman , D. E. 1974 . Phys. Rev. , B10 : 4932
   Google Scholar
• Cederbaum , L. S. 1975 . Non-Single-Particle Excitations in Finite Fermi Systems . J. Chem. Phys. , 62 : 2160
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahan , G. D. 1970 . Theory of Photoemission in Simple Metals . Phys. Rev. B , 2 : 4334
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pendry , J. B. 1976 . Theory of Photoemission . Surf. Sci. , 57 : 679
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sunjic , M. and Sokcevic , D. 1974 . Inelastic Effects in X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy . J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom. , 5 : 963 Gadzuk, J. W. and Sunjic, M., Excitation Energy Dependence of Core-Level X-ray Photoemission Spectra Line Shapes in Metals, Phys. Rev. B, 12, 524 (1975).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berglund , C. N. and Spicer , W. E. 1964 . Phys. Rev. , 136 : A1040
   Google Scholar
• Sunjic , M. 1982 . Theoretical Problems in Solid State Photoemission, Stud. . Surf. Sci. Catal. , 9 : 112
   Google Scholar
• Martin , R. L. and Shirley , D. A. 1976 . Phys. Rev. A , 13 : 1476
   Google Scholar
• Saguiron , M. , Bullock , E. L. and Fadley , C. S. 1987 . The Analysis of Photoelectron Diffraction Data Obtained with Fixed Geometry and Scanned Photon Energy . Surf. Sci. , 182 : 287
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feynman , R. P. 1961 . Quantum Electrodynamics , New York : W. A. Benjamin Inc. . chap. 1
   Google Scholar
• Bjorken , J. D. and Drell , S. D. 1964 . Relativistic Quantum Mechanics , New York : McGraw-Hill . chap. 7
   Google Scholar
• Liebsch , A. 1974 . Phys. Rev. Lett. , 32 : 1203 Phys. Rev. B, 13, 544 (1976).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fadley , C. S. 1990 . “ The Study of Surface Structures by Photoelectron Diffraction and Auger Electron Diffraction ” . In Synchrotron Radiation Research: Advances in Surface and Interface Science , Edited by: Bachrach , R. Z. New York : Plenum Press . in press
   Google Scholar
• Poon , H. C. and Tong , S. Y. 1984 . Phys. Rev. B , 30 : 6211 Tong, S. Y., Poon, H. C., and Snider, D. R., Phys. Rev. B, 32, 2096, 1985.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , D. W. and Shirley , D. A. 1974 . J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom. , 3 : 137
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedin , L. and Johansson , A. 1969 . Polarization Corrections to Core Levels . J. Phys. B , 2 : 1336 For examples of more direct calculations of the relaxed states realized in Equation 38 and their necessity, one should consult, Basch, H. and Snyder, L. C., Chem. Phys. Lett., 3, 333 (1969)., Bagus, P. S., Phys. Rev. A, 139, 619, 1965, Schwartz, M. E., Direct Calculation of Binding Energies of Inner-Shell Electrons in Molecules, Chem. Phys. Lett., 5, 50 (1970). Schwartz, M. E., Coulson, C. A., and Allen, L. C., Dipole Moments, Atomic Charges and Carbon Inner-shell Binding Energies of the Fluorinated Molecules, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 92, 447 (1970). Brundle, C. R., Robin, M., and Basch, H., J. Chem. Phys., 53, 2196 (1970).
   Google Scholar
• Schiff , L. I. 1955 . Quantum Mechanics , 2nd ed. New York : McGraw-Hill . chap. 31
   Google Scholar
• Aberg , T. 1967 . Phys. Rev. , 156 : 35
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manne , R. and Aberg , T. 1970 . Koopmans Theorem for Inner-Shell Ionization . Chem. Phys. Lett. , 7 : 282
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fadley , C. S. 1974 . Peak Intensities and Photoelectric Cross Sections . Chem. Phys. Lett. , 25 : 225
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gadzuk , J. W. 1978 . “ Photoemission and the Electronic Properties of Surfaces ” . In Many-Body Effects in Photoemission , Edited by: Feuerbacher , B. , Filton , B. and Willis , R. New York : J. Wiley & Sons . chap. 5
   Google Scholar
• Kim , K. S. and Davis , R. E. 1972 . J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom. , 1 : 251 Kim, K. S. and Winograd, N., Charge Transfer Shakeup Satellites in X-ray Photoelectron Spectra of Cations and Anion of SrTiO3, TiO2 and Sc2O3, Chem. Phys. Lett., 31, 312 (1975).
   Google Scholar
• Kowalczyk , S. P. , Ley , L. , McFeeley , F. R. , Pollack , R. A. and Shirley , D. A. 1973 . Phys. Rev. B , 8 : 3583 Pollack, R. A., Ley, L., McFeeley, F. R., Kowalczyk, S. P., and Shirley, D. A., J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom., 3, 381 (1974).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahan , G. D. 1973 . Electron Energy Loss During Photoemission . Phys. Status Solidi , B55 : 703
   Google Scholar
• Siegbahn , K. , Nordling , C. , Fahlman , A. , Nordberg , R. , Hamrin , K. , Hedman , J. , Johanson , G. , Bergmark , T. , Karlsson , S.-E. , Lindgren , I. and Lindberg , B. 1967 . ESCA—Atomic, Molecular and Solid State Structure Studied by Means of Electron Spectroscopy . Nova Acta Regiae Soc. Sci. Ups. , IV : 20
   Google Scholar
• Tougaard , S. 1990 . Formalism for Quantitative Surface Analysis by Electron Spectroscopy . J. Vac. Sci. Technol. , A8 : 2197
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner , C. D. 1978 . “ How Quantitative is ESCA—An Evaluation of the Significant Factors ” . In Quantitative Surface Analysis of Materials , Edited by: McIntyre , N. S. Philadelphia : ASTM STP 643, ASTM . chap. 2
   Google Scholar
• Wagner , C. D. 1972 . Anal. Chem. , 44 : 1050 Wagner, C. D., Anal. Chem., 49, 1282 (1977).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner , C. D. , Davis , L. E. , Zeller , M. V. , Taylor , J. A. , Raymond , R. H. and Gale , L. H. 1981 . Surf. Interface Anal. , 3 : 211
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nefedov , V. I. , Serguskin , N. P. , Band , I. N. and Trzhakovskaya , M. B. 1973 . J. Electron Spectrosc. Relot. Phenom. , 2 : 383
   Google Scholar
• Seah , M. P. 1980 . Surf. Interface Anal. , 2 : 222
   Google Scholar
• Powell , C. J. 1978 . “ The Physical Basis for Quantitative Surface Analysis by Auger Electron Spectroscopy and X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy ” . In Quantitative Surface Analysis , Edited by: McIntyre , N. S. Philadelphia : ASTM STP 643, Am. Soc. Test. Materials . chap. 1
   Google Scholar
• Seah , M. P. 1986 . Surf. Interface Anal. , 9 : 85
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mroczkowski , S. J. 1989 . The Effect of Electron Transmission Functions on Calculated Auger Sensitivity Factors . J. Vac. Sci. Technol. , A7 : 1529
   Google Scholar
• Seah , M. P. 1983 . “ Quantification of AES and XPS ” . In Practical Surface Analysis , Edited by: Briggs , D. and Seah , M. P. Chichester, , England : John Wiley & Sons . chap. 5
   Google Scholar
• Schofield , J. H. 1976 . J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom. , 8 : 129
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penn , D. R. 1976 . J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom. , 9 : 29
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angevine , P. J. , Vortuli , J. C. and Delgass , W. N. 1977 . Proc. Int. Congr., Catal. , 6 : 611
   Google Scholar
• Kerkhof , F. P. J. and Moulijn , J. A. 1979 . J. Phys. Chem. , 83 : 1612
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Windawi , H. and Wagner , C. D. 1982 . “ Use of ESCA in the Characterization of Heterogeneous Materials ” . In Applied ESCA , Edited by: Windawi , H. and Ho , F. F.-L. Vol. 63 , New York : Chem. Anal. Ser., Wiley-Interscience . chap. 9
   Google Scholar
• Fung , S. C. 1979 . J. Catal. , 56 : 454
   Google Scholar
• Fadley , C. J. , Baird , R. J. , Siekhaus , W. , Novakov , T. and Bergstrom , S. A. L. 1974 . J. Elec. Spectrosc. and Relat. Phenom. , 4 : 93 Fadley, C. S., Instrumentation for Surface Studies: XPS Angular Distributions, J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom., 5, 725 (1974).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. , Mohensian , M. and Chen , L. M. Appl. Surf. Sci. , in press.
   Google Scholar
• Siegbahn , K. , Gelius , U. , Siegbahn , H. and Olsen , E. 1970 . Phys. Lett. , 32A : 221 This is also one of the introductory expositions of photoelectron diffraction.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fadley , C. S. 1984 . Angle-Resolved X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy . Prog. Surf. Sci. , 16 : 275
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feuerbacher , B. , Fitton , B. and Willis , R. F. , eds. 1978 . Photoemission and the Electronic Properties of Surfaces , New York : John Wiley . Cardona, M. and Ley, L., Eds., Photoemission in Solids, Vol. 1 and 2, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1978; Vol. XLIX, Plummer, E. W., and Eberhardt, W., Rev. Adv. Chem. Phys., Prigogine, I. and Rice, S. A., Eds., John Wiley, New York, 1982, 533.
   Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. April 1990 . Recent Advances of ESCA in Natural Passivation , April , Las Vegas : paper presented at NACE National Convention . Corrosion 90, NACE, Houston, 1990, Paper 296.
   Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. and Yin , M. P. ESCA Studies of the Oxidation of Polymer Surfaces: polypropylene . in preparation
   Google Scholar
• Clark , D. T. and Harrison , A. 1981 . J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Chem. Ed. , 19 : 1945
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briggs , D. 1983 . “ Applications of XPS in Polymer Technology ” . In Practical Surface Analysis , Edited by: Briggs , D. and Seah , M. P. Chichester, , England : John Wiley & Sons . chap. 9
   Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. 1977 . ESCA Studies of Naturally Passivated Metal Foils . J. Vac. Sci. Technol. , 14 : 660
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. 1978 . An ESCA Study of the Termination of the Passivation of Elemental Metals . J. Phys. Chem. , 82 : 1801
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. and Hackenberg , J. J. 1982 . Studies of the Low Temperature Oxidation of Alloys by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy . Cu-Zn, Appl. Surf. Sci. , 10 : 523
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. and Hackenberg , J. J. 1982 . Determination of the Onset of the Dezincification of α-Brass Using X-ray Pholoelectron (ESCA) Spectroscopy . J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 104 : 5390
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. 1982 . ESCA Studies of Metals and Alloys: oxidation, migration and dealloying of cu-based systems . Surf. Interface Anal. , 4 : 185
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloch , F. 1935 . Double Electron Transitions in X-ray Spectra . Phys. Rev. , 48 : 187 Feinberg, E. L., Ionization of the Atom Due to β-Decay, J. Phys., 4, 423 (1941). Levinger, J. S., Effects of Radioactive Disintegrations on Inner Electrons of the Atom, Phys. Rev., 90, 11 (1953). Sachenko, V. P. and Demekhin, V. F., Satellites of X-ray Spectra, Soviet Physics JETP, 22, 532 (1966). Carlson, T. A. and Krause, M. O., Electron Shake-Off Resulting From K-Shell Ionization in Neon Measured as a Function of Photoelectron Velocity; Phys. Rev., 140, A1057 (1965). Krause, M. O., Carlson, T. A., and Dismukes, R. D., Phys. Rev., 170, 37 (1968). Carlson, T. A. and Nestor, Jr., C. W., Calculation of Electron Shake-Off Probabilities as a Result of X-Ray Photoionization of the Rare Gases, Phys. Rev. A, 8, 2887 (1973). b) Aberg, T., Phys. Rev., 156, 35 (1967). Carlson, T. A. and Krause, M. O., Atomic Readjustment to Vacancies in the K and L Shell of Ar, Phys. Rev., 137, A1655 (1965). Carlson, T. A., Krause, M. O., and Moddeman, W. E., J. Phys., C20, 102 (1971). Carroll, T. X. and Thomas, T. D., Shake-up Spectra and Core Ionization Potentials for Formaldehyde. The Role of Electron Spin in Shake-up, J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom., 10, 215 (1977).
   Google Scholar
• Chang , J. J. and Langreth , D. C. 1972 . Deep-hole Excitations in Solids I. Fast Electron-Plasmon Effects . Phys. Rev. , B5 : 3512 and Deep-Hole Excitations in Solids II. Plasmons and Surface Effects in X-ray Photoemission, Phys. Rev. B, 8, 4638 (1973). b) Langreth, D. C., Born-Oppenheimer Principle in Reverse: Electrons, photons and plasmons in solids-singularities in their spectra, Phys. Rev. Lett., 26, 1229 (1971). c) Langreth, D. C., Singularities in the X-ray Spectra of Metals, Phys. Rev. B, 1, 431 (1970).
   Google Scholar
• Gadzuk , J. W. and Sunjic , M. 1975 . Excitation Energy Dependence of Core-Level X-ray Photoemission-Sectra Line Shapes in Metals . Phys. Rev. B , 12 : 524 b) Gadzuk, J. W., Plasmon Satellites in X-ray Photoemission Spectra, J. Electron Spectrosc. and Relat. Phenom., 11, 355 (1977).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manne , R. and Aberg , T. 1970 . Koopmans Theorem For Inner Shell Ionization . Chem. Phys. Lett. , 7 : 282
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fadley , C. S. 1974 . Peak Intensities and Photoelectron Cross Sections in the Sudden Approximation . J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom. , 5 : 895 Fadley, C. S., in Electron Spectroscopy: Theory, Techniques and Applications, Vol. 2, Brundle, C. R. and Baker, A. D., Eds., Academic Press, New York, 1978, 1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kowalczyk , S. P. , Ley , L. , McFeeley , F. R. , Pollack , R. A. and Shirley , D. A. 1973 . Phys. Rev. B , 8 : 3583 Pollack, R. A., Ley, L., McFeeley, F. R., Kowalczyk, S. P., and Shirley, D. A., Characteristic Energy Loss Structure of Solids from X-ray Photoemission Spectra, J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom., 3, 381 (1974). Ley, L., McFeeley, F. R., Kowalczyk, S. P., Jenkin, J. G., and Shirley, D. A., Many-body Effects in X-ray Photoemission from Magnesium, Phys. Rev. B, 11, 600 (1975). Kowalzyk, S. P., Ley, L., Martin, R. L., Mc-Feeley, F. R., and Shirley, D. A., Relaxation and Final-State Structure in XPS of Atoms, Molecules and Metals, Discuss. Faraday Soc., 7, 1975. b) Pollack, R. A., Ph. D. thesis, University of California, Berkley, 1972.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bohm , D. and Pines , D. 1951 . Phys. Rev. , 82 : 625 Pines, D. and Bohm, D., A Collective Description of Electron Interactions II. Collective vs. Individual Practicle Aspects of the Interaction, Phys. Rev., 85, 338 (1952). Bohm, D. and Pines, D., Phys. Rev., 92, 609 (1953). Pines, D. Phys. Rev., 92, 626 (1953). b) Pines, D., Collective Energy Losses in Solids, Rev. Mod. Phys., 28, 184 (1956). c) Pines, D., Elementary Excitations in Solids, Benjamin Publishers, New York, 1964.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nozières , P. and Pines , D. 1958 . Electron Interactions in Solids. General Formulation . Phys. Rev. , 109 : 741 b) Nozières, P. and Pines, D., Electron Interaction in Solids. Collective Approach to the Dielectric Constant, Phys. Rev., 109, 762 (1958). c) Nozières, P. and Pines, D., Electron Interaction in Solids. The Nature of the Elementary Excitation, Phys. Rev., 109, 1062 (1958). d) Nozières, P. and Pines, D., Correlation Energy of a Free Electron Gas, Phys. Rev., 111, 442 (1958).
   Google Scholar
• Sunjic , M. and Sokcevic , D. 1974 . Inelastic Effects in X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy . J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom. , 5 : 963 Sunjic, M. and Sokcevic, D., On the Problem of ‘Intrinsic’ vs. ‘Extrinsic’ Scattering in X-ray Photoemission From Core Levels of Solids, Solid State Commun., 18, 373 (1976).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doniach , S. and Sunjic , M. 1970 . J. Phys. C , 3 : 285 b) Gadzuk, J. W. and Doniach, S., A Soluble Relaxation Model for Core Level Spectroscopy on Adsorbed Atoms, Surf. Sci., 77, 427 (1978).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaich , W. L. and Aschcroft , N. W. 1970 . Phys. Rev. B , 3 : 2452 Lundqvist, B. L., Phys. Condens. Matter, 9, 236 (1969). Sunjic, M. and Lucas, A. A., Phys. Rev. B, 3, 719 (1971). Hedin, L. and Lundqvist, S., Solid State Phys., 23, 1 (1969). Lundqvist, S. and Wendin, G., J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom., 5, 513 (1974). Cederbaum, L. C. and Domcke, W., J. Chem. Phys., 64, 603 (1976).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Statements to this effect have appeared quite often in the literature and text books.
   Google Scholar
• Powell , C. J. and Swan , J. B. 1960 . Effect of Oxidation on the Characteristic Loss Spectra of Aluminum and Magnesium . Phys. Rev. , 118 : 640 Powell, C. J. and Swan, J. B., Phys. Rev., 115, 869, 1959 and 116, 81, 1959. b) Callcott, T. A. and McRae, A. U., Phys. Rev., 178, 769 (1969). Smith, N. V. and Spicer, W. E., Phys. Rev. Lett., 22, 769 (1969). c) Pireaux, J. J., Ghijsen, J., McGowan, J. W., Verbist, J., and Caudano, R., Surface Plasmon Spectroscopy: photoelectron spectra from adsorbates on aluminum. Surf. Sci., 80, 488 (1979). d) Sokcevic, D., Sunjic, M., and Fadley, C. S., Strength of Intrinsic Plasmon Satellites in XPS from Adsorbates: dispersion and lifetime effects, Surf. Sci., 82, 383 (1979).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. 1988 . XPS Analysis in Pt-Metal Catalysis . ACS Div. Petrol. Chem. , 33 : 699
   Google Scholar
• Parmigiani , F. , Kay , E. , Bagus , P. S. and Nelin , C. J. 1985 . J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom. , 36 : 257
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Platzman , P. M. and Wolff , P. A. 1973 . “ Waves and Interactions in Solid State Plasmas ” . In Solid State Phys. , Edited by: Ehrenreich , H. , Seitz , F. and Turn-bull , D. Vol. 13 , New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ludeke , R. 1978 . Electronic Properties of the (100) Surfaces of GaSb and InAs and Their Alloys With GaAs . IBM J. Res. Dev. , 22 : 304
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Froitzheim , H. , Ibach , H. and Mills , D. L. 1975 . Phys. Rev. , B11 : 4980 b) Ibach, H. and Mills, D., Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy and Surface Vibrations, Academic Press, New York, 1982.
   Google Scholar
• Ibach , H. 1970 . Phys. Rev. Lett. , 24 : 263 Ibach, H., J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 9, 713 (1972).
   Google Scholar
• Bohm , D. and Gross , E. P. 1949 . Phys. Rev. , 75 : 1851 1864
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , P. W. 1967 . Infrared Catastrophe in Fermi Gases with Local Scattering Potentials . Phys. Rev. Lett. , 18 : 1049
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nozières , P. and De Dominics , C. T. 1969 . Singularities in the X-ray Absorption and Emission of Metals III: one-body theory exact solution . Phys. Rev. , 178 : 1097
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. , Greene , J. E. and Eltoukhy , A. H. 1979 . J. Vac. Sci. Technol. , 16 : 517 Natarajan, B. R., Eltoukhy, A. H., Greene, J. E., and Barr, T. L., Mechanism of Reactive Sputtering of Indium 2: growth of indium oxynitride in mixed N2-O2 discharges, Thin Solid Films, 69, 217 (1980).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. 1983 . An XPS Study of Si as It Occurs in Adsorbents, Catalysts and Thin Films . Appl. Surf. Sci. , 15 : 1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. 1983 . “ Applications of Electron Spectroscopy to Heterogeneous Catalysis ” . In Practical Surface Analysis , Edited by: Briggs , D. and Seah , M. P. Chichester, , England : John Wiley . chap. 8
   Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. , Kramer , B. , Shah , S. I. , Ray , M. and Greene , J. E. 1985 . ESCA Studies of the Valence Band and Loss Spectra of Semiconductor Films: ionicity and chemical bonding . Mater. Res. Soc. Proc. , 47 : 205
   Google Scholar
• Kubiak , C. J. G. , Aita , C. R. , Tran , N. C. and Barr , T. L. 1986 . Characterization of Sputter Deposited Al-Nitride and Al-Oxide by X-ray Photoelectron Loss Spectroscopy . Mater. Res. Soc. , 60 : 379
   Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. and Yin , M. P. ESCA Induced Loss Spectroscopy as a Means to Determine the Surface Chemistry of C-C and C-H Containing Systems . Langmuir. , submitted to
   Google Scholar
• Yin , M. P. , Barr , T. L. , Pino , L. , Giordano , N. and Antonucci , P. L. ESCA Studies of the Processing of C/Pt Fuel Cell Electrodes: with emphasis on XPS induced loss results . J. Mater. Chem. , submitted.
   Google Scholar
• Meldner , H. W. and Perez , J. D. 1971 . Observability of Rearrangement Energies and Relaxation Times . Phys. Rev. A , 4 : 1388
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Müller-Hartmann , E. , Ramakrishnan , T. V. and Toulouse , G. 1971 . Localized Dynamic Perturbations in Metals . Phys. Rev. B , 3 : 1102
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , W. and March , N. H. 1973 . Theoretical Solid State Physics , Vol. 1 , 76 New York : Dover Publications, John Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Kittel , C. 1971 . Introduction to Solid State Physics , 4th ed. New York : J. Wiley & Sons . chap. 9
   Google Scholar
• Fuggle , J. C. , Fabian , D. J. and Watson , L. M. 1976 . Electron Energy Loss Processes in X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy . J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom. , 9 : 99
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. 1982 . ESCA Studies of Metals and Alloys: oxidation, migration and dealloying of cu-based systems . Surf. Interface Anal. , 4 : 185
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr , T. L. to be published.
   Google Scholar
• Natarajan , B. R. , Eltoukhy , A. H. , Greene , J. E. and Barr , T. L. 1980 . Mechanism of Reactive Sputtering of Indium 1. Growth of InN in Mixed Ar-N2 Discharges . Thin Solid Films , 69 : 201
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson , E. D. 1985 . “ Preparations and Surface Characterization of Planar Transition Aluminas ” . In Ph. D. Dissertation , Cornell Univ. .
   Google Scholar
• Briggs , D. 1983 . “ Applications of XPS in Polymer Technology ” . In Practical Surface Analysis , Edited by: Briggs , D. and Seah , M. P. Chichester, , England : John Wiley & Sons . chap. 9
   Google Scholar
• Yin , M. P. , Barr , T. L. and Koutsky , J. to be published.
   Google Scholar
• Galuska , A. A. , Maden , H. H. and Allred , R. E. 1988 . Electron Spectroscopy of Graphite, Graphite Oxide and Amorphous Carbon . Applied Surf. Anal. , 32 : 253
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegbahm , K. private communication.
   Google Scholar
• McFeeley , F. R. , Kowalczyk , S. P. , Ley , L. , Cavell , R. C. , Pollack , R. A. and Shirley , D. A. 1974 . Phys. Rev. B , 9 : 5268
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park , R. L. , Houston , J. E. and Laramore , G. E. 1974 . Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. on Solid Surf. 1974 . Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. , : 757
   Google Scholar
• Weissmantel , C. , Bewilogua , K. , Schurer , C. , Breuer , K. and Zscheile , H. 1979 . Thin Solid Films , 61 : L1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang , W. Y. and Cundy , S. L. 1969 . Philos. Mag. , 19 : 1031
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luries , I. G. and Wilson , J. M. 1977 . Surf. Sci. , 65 : 476
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsai , Hsiao-Chu and Bogy , D. B. 1987 . J. Vac. Sci. Technol. , A5 ( 6 ) : 3287
   Google Scholar
• Rohatgi , P. K. , Dahotre , N. B. , Liu , Y. , Yin , M. P. and Barr , T. L. 1988, 1988 . “ Tribological Behavior of Al Alloy-Graphite and Al Alloy-Microcrystalline Carbon Particle Composites ” . In Cast Reinforced Metal Composites World Mater. Congr. Proc. Edited by: Fishman , S. G. and Dhinga , A. K. 367 ASM, Chicago, IL
   Google Scholar
• Rohatgi , P. K. , Liu , Y. , Yin , M. and Barr , T. L. 1990 . A Surface Analytical Study of Tribodeformed Aluminum Alloy 319–10 Vol.% Graphite Partical Composite . Mater. Sci. Eng. , A123 : 213
   Google Scholar