829
Views
76
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Intestinal bacteria and inflammatory bowel disease

, &
Pages 25-54 | Published online: 20 Jan 2009

References

  • S Macfarlane, MJ Hopkins, and GT Macfarlane. (2000). Bacterial growth and metabolism on surfaces in the large intestine. Microb Ecol Health Dis 2:64–72.
  • DC Savage. (1977). Microbial ecology of the gastrointestinal tract. Annu Rev Microbiol 31:107–133.
  • GT Macfarlane, GR Gibson, BS Drasar, and JH Cummings. Metabolic significance of the colonic microflora. In R Whitehead, Ed. Gastrointestinal and Oesophageal Physiology. Pp 249–274. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, (1995).
  • GT Macfarlane, GR Gibson. Metabolic activities of the normal colonic flora. In SAW Gibson, Ed. Human Health: The Contribution of Microorganisms. Pp. 17–52. London: Springer Verlag, (1994).
  • R Sharp, and CJ Ziemer. Application of taxonomy and systematics to molecular techniques in intestinal microbiology. In GR Gibson, M Roberfroid, Eds. Colonic Microflora, Nutrition and Health. Pp 167–190. London: Chapman and Hal, (1999).
  • MJ Hopkins, R Sharp, and GT Macfarlane. (2001). Age and disease-related changes in intestinal bacterial populations assessed by cell culture, 16S rRNA abundance and community cellular fatty acid profiles. Gut 48:198–205.
  • AJ McBain, and GT Macfarlane. (1998). Ecological and physiological studies on large intestinal bacteria in relation to production of hydrolytic and reductive enzymes involved in formation of genotoxic metabolites. J Med Microbiol 47:407–416.
  • GT Macfarlane, and S Macfarlane. Human colonic microbiota: ecology, physiology and metabolic potential of intestinal bacteria. In I Isolauri, WA Walker, Eds. Allergic Diseases and the Environment Pp 179–198. Basel: Vevey/S Karger AG, (2004)
  • JH Cummings, and GT Macfarlane. (1991). The control and consequences of bacterial fermentation in the human colon. J Appl Bacteriol 70:443–459.
  • SM Finegold, VL Sutter, and GE Mathisen. Normal indigenous intestinal flora. In DJ Hentges, Ed. Human intestinal microflora in health and disease. Pp 3–31. London: Academic Press, (1983).
  • EJ Woodmansey, M ET McMurdo, GT Macfarlane, and S Macfarlane. (2004). Comparison of compositions and metabolic activities of fecal microbiotas in young adults and in antibiotic-treated and non-antibiotic treated elderly subjects. Appl Environ Microbiol 70:6113–6122.
  • S Bartosch, A Fite, GT Macfarlane, and M ET McMurdo. (2004). Characterization of bacterial communities in feces from healthy elderly volunteers and hospitalized elderly patients using real-time PCR and the effects of antibiotic treatment on the fecal microflora. Appl Environ Microbiol 70:3575–3581.
  • JH Cummings, GT Macfarlane, and S Macfarlane. (2003). Intestinal bacteria and ulcerative colitis. Curr Iss Intest Microbiol 4:9–20.
  • BE Sands. (2002). From symptoms to diagnosis: clinical distinctions among various forms of intestinal inflammation. Gastroenterology 126:1518–1532.
  • C Gasche, J Scholmerich, J Brynskov, G D'Haens, SB Hanauer, EJ Irvine, DP Jewell, D Rachmilewitz, DB Sachar, WJ Sandborn, and LR Sutherland. (2000). A simple classification of Crohn's disease: report of the Working Party for the World Congress of Gastroenterology, Vienna 1998. Inflamm Bowel Dis 6:8–15.
  • E v LoftusJr. (2004). Clinical epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease: incidence, prevalence and environmental influences. Gastroenterology 126:1504–1517.
  • GP Rubin, AP Hungin, PJ Kelly, and J Ling. (2000). Inflammatory bowel disease: epidemiology and management in an English general practice population. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 14:1553–1559.
  • L Bergman, and U Krause. (1975). The incidence of Crohn's disease in central Sweden. Scand J Gastroenterol 10:725–729.
  • JF Mayberry, C SJ Probert, V Jayanthi, and S Shivananda. Epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease: a European perspective. In AA Anagnostides, H JF Hodgson, and JB Kirsner, Eds. Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Pp 163–178. London: Chapman and Hall, (1991).
  • S Shivananda, J Lennard-Jones, R Logan, N Fear, A Price, L Carpenter, and M van Blankenstein. (1996). Incidence of inflammatory bowel disease across Europe: is there a difference between the north and south? Results of the European collaborative study on inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 39:690–697.
  • L Falla-Alvarez, and R Albacete. (1958). Further experience with chronic regional enteritis in Cuba. S Med J 51:1556–1561.
  • MSR Hutt. (1979). Epidemiology of chronic intestinal disease in Middle Africa. Israel J Med Sci 15:314–317.
  • C Tysk, E Lindberg, G Jarnerot, and B Floderus-My-Led. (1988). Ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease in an unselected population of monozygotic and dizygotic twins. A study of inheritability and the influence of smoking. Gut 29:990.
  • IT Wetterman, and AS Pena. (1984). Familial incidence of Crohn's disease in the Netherlands and a review of the literature. Gastroenterology 86:449–452.
  • RM Lewkonia, and RB McConnell. (1976). Familial inflammatory bowel disease-hereditary or environment?. Gut 17:235–243.
  • ML Begleiter, and DJ Harris. (1985). Familial incidence of Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 88:221.
  • M Orholm, P Nlunkholm, E Langholz, O Haaen Nielsen, TS Borensen, and V Binder. (1991). Familial occurrence of inflammatory bowel disease. Eng J Med 324:84.
  • JR Thornton, PM Emmett, and KW Heaton. (1979). Diet and Crohn's disease: characteristics of the pre-illness diet. Br Med J 2:762–764.
  • T Gilat, D Hacohen, P Lilos, and M JS Langman. (1987). Childhood factors in ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. An international cooperative study. Scand J Gastroenterol 22:1009–1024.
  • P Rozen, J Zonis, P Yekutiel, and T Gilat. (1979). Crohn's disease in the Jewish population of Tel-Aviv-Yafo. Gastroenterology 76:25–30.
  • RJ Dickinson, MG Ashton, and GL Hill. (1980). Controlled trial of intravenous hyperalimentation and total bowel rest as an adjuvant to the routine therapy of acute colitis. Gastroenterology 79:1199–1204.
  • RB Sartor. (1990). Role of intestinal microflora in initiation and perpetuation of inflammatory bowel disease. Can J Gastroenterol 4:271–277.
  • RB Sartor. (1997). Enteric microflora in inflammatory bowel disease: pathogens or commensals?. Inflamm Bowel Dis 3:23–35.
  • C Prantera, ML Scribang, E Berto, and F Zannoni. (1997). Antibiotic use in Crohn's disease. Why and How?. Bio Drugs 8:293–306.
  • C Fiocchi. (1998). Inflammatory bowel disease: etiology and pathogenesis. Gastroenterology 115:182–205.
  • DJ Marks, MW Harbord, R MacAllister, FZ Rahman, J Young, B Al-Lazikani, W Lees, M Novelli, S Bloom, and AW Segal. (2006). Defective acute inflammation in Crohn's disease: a clinical investigation. Lancet 36:668–678.
  • DA O'Neil. (2003). Regulation of expression of beta-defensins: endogenous enteric peptide antibiotics. Mol Immunol 40:445–450.
  • WJ Sandborn, WJ Tremaine, DC Wolf, SR Targan, CA Sninsky, LR Sutherland, SB Hanauer, J WD McDonald, BG Feagan, RN Fedorak, KL Isaacs, MG Pike, DC Mays, JJ Lipsky, S Gordon, CS Kleoudis, and RH Murdock. (1999). Lack of effect of intravenous administration on time to respond to azathioprine for steroid treated Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 117:527–535.
  • S Fais, F Pallone, O Squarcia, M Boirivant, and P Pozzilli. (1985). T cell early activation antigens expressed by peripheral lymphocytes in Crohn's disease. J Lab Clin Med 16:75–76.
  • C Mueller, P Knoflach, and CC Zienlinski. (1990). T cell activation in Crohn's disease: increased levels of soluble interleukin 2 receptor in serum and in supernatants of stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Gastroenterology 98:639–646.
  • L Mayer, and D Eisenhardt. (1990). Lack of induction of suppressor T cells by intestinal epithelial cells from patients with inflammatory bowel disease. J Clin Invest 86:1255–1260.
  • K Ina, J Itoh, K Fukushima, K Kusugami, T Yamaguchi, K Kyokane, A Imada, DG Binon, A Musso, GA West, GM Dobrea, TS McCormick, EG Lapetina, AD Levine, CA Ottaway, and C Fiocchi. (1999). Resistance of Crohn's disease T cells to multiple apoptotic signals is associated with Bcl-2/Bax mucosal imbalance. J Immunol 163:1081–1090.
  • M Boirvant, M Marini, G Di Felice, AM Pronio, C Montesani, R Tersigni, and W Strober. (1999). Lamina propria T cells in Crohn's disease and other gastrointestinal inflammation show defective CD2 pathway induced apoptosis. Gastroenterology 116:557–565.
  • DG Binon, GA West, K Ina, NP Ziats, SN Emancipator, and C Fiocchi. (1997). Enhanced leukocyte binding by intestinal microvascular endothelial cells in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 112:1895–1907.
  • K Teahon, I Bjarnason, M Person, and AJ Levi. (1990). Ten years experience with an elemental diet in the management of Crohn's disease. Gut 31:1133.
  • SB Hanauer, and U Strömberg. (2004). Oral pentasa in the treatment of active Crohn's disease: a meta analysis of double-blind, placebo-controlled trials. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2:379–388.
  • P Rutgeerts, R Lofberg, C Malchow Lamers, G Olaison, D Jewell, A Danielsson, H Goebell, OO Thomsen, H Lorenz-Meyer, H Hodgson, T Persson, and C Seidegard. (1994). A comparison of Budesonide with prednisolone for active Crohn's disease. N Engl J Med 331:842–845.
  • A Otley, AH Steinhart, and A Otley. Budesonide for induction of remission in Crohn's disease. Cochrane Library. Issue 4 Chichester: Wiley, (2005).
  • DC Pearson, GR May, GR Fick, and LR Sutherland. Azathioprine fo rmaintaining remission of Crohn's disease. Cochrane Library. Issue 2 Oxford: Update Software, (2000).
  • AG Fraser. (2003). Methotrexate: first or second line immunomodulator?. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 15:225–231.
  • SR Targan, SB Hanaeur, SJ van Deventer, L Mayer, DH Present, T Braakman, KL DeWoody, TF Schaible, and PJ Rutgeerts. (1997). A short term study of chimeric monoclonal antibody cA2 to TNF alpha for Crohn's disease. N Engl J Med 337:1029–1035.
  • T Ljung, P Karlen, D Schmidt, PM Hellström, A Lapidus, I Janczewska, U Sjöqvist, and R Löfberg. (2004). Infliximab in inflammatory bowel disease: clinical outcome in a population based cohort from Stockholm County. Gut 53:849–853.
  • DH Present, P Rutgeerts, S Targan, SB Hanauer, L Mayer, RA van Hogezand, DK Podolsky, BE Sands, T Braakman, KL DeWoody, TF Schaible, and SJ van Deventer. (1999). Infliximab for the treatment of fistulas in patients with Crohn's disease. N Engl J Med 340:1398–1405.
  • MJ Carter, AJ Lobo, S PL Travis, and on behalf of the IBD section of the British Society of Gastroenterology. (2004). Guidelines for the management of inflammatory bowel disease in adults. Gut 53:v1–v16.
  • P Rutgeerts, K Geboes, G Vantrappen, J Beyls, R Kerremans, and M Hiele. (1990). Predictability of the postoperative course of Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 99:956–963.
  • G Olaison, K Smedh, and R Sjodahl. (1992). Natural course of Crohn's disease after ileocolic resection: endoscopically visualized ileal ulcers preceding symptoms. Gut 33:331–335.
  • EA Magee, LM Edmond, SM Tasker, SC Kong, R Curno, and JH Cummings. (2005). Associations between diet and disease activity in ulcerative colitis patients using a novel method of data analysis. Nutr J 4:7.
  • AC Chin, and CA Parkos. (2006). Neutrophil transepithelial migration and epithelial barrier function in IBD: potential targets for inhibiting neutrophil trafficking. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1072:276–287.
  • IJ Fuss, M Neurath, M Boirivant, JS Klein, C de la Motte, SA Strong, C Fiocchi, and W Strober. (1996). Disparate CD4 lamina propria lymphokine secretion profiles in inflammatory bowel disease. Crohn's disease LP cells manifest increased secretion of IFN-gamma, whereas ulcerative colitis LP cells manifest increased secretion of IL-5. J Immunol 157:1261–1270.
  • S Nash, J Stafford, and JL Madara. (1987). Effects of polymorphonuclear leukocyte transmigration on the barrier function of ultured intestinal epithelial monolayers. J Clin Invest 80:1104–1113.
  • EV Loftus, SV Kane, and D Bjorkman. (2004). Systemic review: short term adverse effects of 5-aminosalicylic acid agents in the treatment of ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 19:179–189.
  • AB Hawthorne. (2003). Cyclosporin and refractory colitis. Eur J Gastroeneterol Hepatol 15:239–244.
  • W Sandborn, R McLeod, and DP Jewell. (2001). Pharmacotherapy for inducing and maintaining remission in pouchitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD001176
  • SL Jakobovits, DP Jewell, and SP Travis. (2007). Infliximab for the treatment of ulerative colitis: outcomes in Oxford from 2000 to 2006. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 25:1055–1060.
  • RJ Victor, JB Kirsner, and W Palmer. (1950). Failure to induce ulcerative colitis experimentally with filtrates of feces and rectal mucosa. Gastroenterology 14:398.
  • ET Rietschel, T Kirkae, FU Schade, U Mamat, G Schmidt, H Loppnow, AJ Ulmer, U Zahringer, U Sevdel, F Di Padova, M Schreier, and H Brade. (1994). Bacterial endotoxin: molecular relationships of structure to activity and function. FASEBJ 8:217–225.
  • T Oriishi, M Sata, A Toyonaga, E Sasaki, and K Tanikawa. (1995). Evaluation of intestinal permeability in patients with inflammatory bowel disease using lactulose and measuring antibodies to lipid A. Gut 36:891–896.
  • KR Gardiner, MI Halliday, GR Barclay, L Milne, D Brown, S Stephens, RJ Maxwell, and BJ Rowlands. (1995). Significance of systemic endotoxaemia in inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 36:897–901.
  • MN Eade, and BN Brooke. (1969). Portal bacteraemia in cases of ulcerative colitis submitted to colectomy. Lancet 1:1008–1009.
  • HJ Van Kruningen, JF Colombel, RW Cartun, RH Whitlock, M Koopmans, HO Kangro, JA Hoogkamp-Korstanje, M Lecomte-Houcke, M Devred, JC Paris, and A Cortot. (1993). An in-depth study of Crohn's disease in two French families. Gastroenterology 104:351.
  • J Munro, J Mayberry, N Matthews, and J Rhodes. (1979). Chlamydia and Crohn's disease. Lancet 2:45.
  • WR Burnham, JE Lennard-Jones, JL Stanford, and RG Bird. (1978). Mycobacteria as a possible cause of inflammatory bowel disease. Lancet 2:693–696.
  • Y Liu, HJ van Kruiningen, AB West, LW Cartun, A Cortot, and JF Colombel. (1995). Immunocytochemical evidence of Listeria, Escherichia coli and streptococcus antigens in Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 108:1396–1404.
  • WEW Roediger, and GT Macfarlane. (2002). A role for intestinal mycoplasma in the aetiology of Crohn's disease?. J Appl Microbiol 92:377–381.
  • MA Gassull, F Fernandez-Barnares, E Cabre, M Papo, MH Giaffer, JL Sanchez-Lombrana, JC Quer, H Malchow, and F Gonzalez-Huix. (2000). Fat composition is the differential factor to explain the primary therapeutic effect of enteral nutrition in Crohn's disease. Results of a double-blind randomized multicentre European trial. Gastroenterology 118:A117.
  • S Alvarez-Elcoro, and MJ Enzler. (1999). The macrolides: erythromycin, clarithromycin and azithromycin. Mayo Clinic Proc 74:613–634.
  • PH Rubin, ML Chapman, E Scherl, DB Sachar, C Stamaty, and DH Present. (1996). Clarithromycin in active Crohn's disease (CD): preliminary of an open label pilot study. Gastroenterology 110:A1005.
  • K Leiper, AI Morris, and JM Rhodes. (2000). Open lable trial of oral clarithromycin in active Crohn's disease. Aliment Pharmacol Therap 14:801–806.
  • G PH Gui, P RS Thomas, M LV Tizard, J Lake, JD Sanderson, and J Hermon-Taylor. (1997). Two year outcomes analysis of Crohn's disease treated with rifabutin and macrolide antibiotics. J Antimicrob Chemother 39:393–400.
  • TJ Borody, L Pearce, PA Bampton, and S Leis. (1998). Treatment of severe Crohn's disease (CD) using rifabutin—macrolide—clofazimine combination: interim report. Gastroenterology 114:A938.
  • T Bamba, H Matsuda, M Endo, and Y Fujiyama. (1995). The pathogenic role of Bacteroides vulgatus in patients with ulcerative colitis. J Gastroenterol 30:45–47.
  • M Belsheim, R Darwisk, and M Watson. (1983). Bacterial L-form isolation from inflammatory bowel disease patients. Gastroenterology 85:364–369.
  • JM Rhodes. (1996). Unifying hypothesis for inflammatory bowel disease and associated colon cancer: sticking the pieces togethers with sugar. Lancet 347:40–44.
  • A Garcia-Lafuente, M Antolin, F Guarner, E Crespo, A Salas, P Forcada, M Laguarda, J Gavaldá, JA Baena, J Vilaseca, and JR Malagelada. (1997). Incrimination of anaerobic bacteria in the induction of experimental colitis. Am J Physiol 272:G10–15.
  • M Mourelle, A Salas, F Guarner, E Crespo, A García-Lafuente, and JR Malagelada. (1998). Stimulation of transforming growth factor-beta1 by enteric bacteria in the pathogenesis of rat intestinal fibrosis. Gastroenterology 114:519–526.
  • A Swidsinski, A Ladhoff, A Pernthaler, S Swidsinski, V Loening-Baucke, M Ortner, J Weber, U Hoffmann, S Schreiber, M Dietel, and H Lochs. (2002). Mucosal flora in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 122:44–54.
  • CP Tamboli, C Neut, P Desreumaux, and JF Colombel. (2004). Dysbiosis in inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 53:1–4.
  • P Seksik, L Rigottier-Gois, G Gramet, M Sutren, P Pochart, P Marteau, R Jian, and J Dore. (2003). Alterations of the dominant fecal bacterial groups in patients with Crohn's disease of the colon. Gut 52:237–242.
  • d e Van, JP Merwe, AM Schroder, F Wensinck, and MP Hazenberg. (1988). The obligate anaerobic faecal flora of patients with Crohn's disease and their first degree relatives. Scand J Gastroenterol 23:1125.
  • MH Giaffer, CD Holdsworth, and BI Duerde. (1991). The assessment of faecal flora in patients with inflammatory bowel disease by a simplified bacteriological technique. J Med Microbiol 35:238.
  • C Manichanh, L Rigottier-Gois, E Bonnaud, K Gloux, E Pelletier, L Frangeul, R Nalin, C Jarrin, P Chardon, P Marteau, J Roca, and J Dore. (2006). Reduced diversity of faecal mirobiota in Crohn's disease revealed by a metagenomic approach. Gut 55:205–211.
  • MC Comes, C Gower-Rousseau, JF Colombel, J Belaiche, HJ Van Kruiningen, MC Nuttens, and A Cortot. (1994). Inflammatory bowel disease in married couples: 10 cases in Nord Pas de Calais region of France and Leige county of Belgium. Gut 35:1316–1318.
  • A Ekbom, C Helmick, M Zack, and HO Adami. (1991). The epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease: a large population based epidemiologic study. Gastroenterology 100:350–358.
  • R Kotiowski, CN Bernstein, S Sepehri, and DO Krause. (2007). High prevalence of Escherichia coli belonging to the B2+D phylogenetic group in inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 56:669–675.
  • HM Martin, BJ Campbell, CA Hart, C Mpofu, M Nayar, R Singh, H Englyst, HF Williams, and JM Rhodes. (2004). Enhanced Escherichia coli adherance and invasion in Crohn's disease and colon cancer. Gastroenterology 127:80–93.
  • A Darfeuille-Michaud, J Boudeau, P Bulois, C Neut, AL Glasser, C Barnich, MA Bringer, A Swidsinski, L Beaugerie, and JF Colombel. (2004). High prevalence of adherant invasive Escherichia coli associated with ileal mucosa in Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 127:412–421.
  • MP Conte, S Schippa, I Zamboni, M Penta, F Chiarini, L Seganti, J Osborn, P Falconieri, O Borrelli, and S Cucchiara. (2006). Gut-associated bacterial microbiota in paedatric patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 55:1760–1767.
  • M Mylonaki, NB Rayment, DS Rampton, BN Hudspith, and J Brostoff. (2005). Molecular characterisation of rectal mucosa-associated bacterial flora in inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 11:481–487.
  • D Burke, and A Axon. (1988). Adhesive E. coli in inflammatory bowel disease and infective diarrhoea. Br Med J 297:102–104.
  • VS Chadwick. Etiology of chronic ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. In SF Philips, JH Pemberton, and RG Shorter, Eds. The Large Intestine: Physiology, Pathophysiology and Disease. Pp 445–463. New York: Raven Press Ltd, (1991).
  • MH Giaffer, CD Holdsworth, and BI Duerden. (1992). Virulance properties of Escherichia coli strains isolated from patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 33:646–650.
  • MG Hartley, MJ Hudson, ET Swarbrick, AE Gent, MD Hellier, and RH Grace. (1993). Adhesive and hydrophobic properties of Escherichia coli from the rectal mucosa of patients with ulcerative colitis. Gut 34:63–67.
  • C Schultsz, M Moussa, R van Ketel, GN Tytgat, and J Dankert. (1997). Frequency of pathogenic and enteroadherent Escherichia coli in patients with inflammatory bowel disease and controls. J Clin Pathol 50:573–579.
  • RS Walmsley, A Anthony, R Sim, RE Pounder, and AJ Wakefield. (1998). Absence of Escherichia coli Listeria monocytogenes Klebsiella pneumoniae antigens within inflammatory bowel disease tissues. J Clin Pathol 51:657–661.
  • A Darfeuille-Michaud, C Neut, N Barnich, E Lederman, P Di Martino, P Desreumaux, L Gambiez, B Joly, A Cortot, and JF Colombel. (1998). Presence of adherent Escherichia coli strains in ileal mucosa of patients with Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 115:1405–1413.
  • S Subramanian, BJ Campbell, and JM Rhodes. (2006). Bacteria in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease. Curr Opin Infect Dis 19:475–484.
  • O Cohavy, D Bruckner, LK Gordon, R Misra, B Wei, ME Eggena, SR Targan, and J Braun. (2000). Colonic bacteria express an ulcerative colitis pANCA-related protein epitope. Infect Imuun 68:1542–1548.
  • E Abad, C Tural, E Mirapeix, and A Cuxart. (1997). Relationship between ANCA and clinical activity in inflammatory bowel disease: variation in prevalence of ANCA and evidence of heterogeneity. J Autoimmun 10:175–180.
  • N Rolhion, and A Darfeuille-Michaud. (2007). Adherent-invasive (Escherichia coli) in inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 13:1277–1283.
  • AL Glasser, J Boudeau, N Barnich, MH Perruchot, JF Colombel, and A Darfeuille-Michaud. (2001). Adherent invasive Escherichia coli strains from patients with Crohn's disease survive and replicate within macrophages without inducing host cell death. Infect Immun 69:5529–5537.
  • M Sasaki, SV Sitaraman, BA Babbin, P Gerner-Smidt, EM Ribot, N Garrett, JA Alpern, A Akyildiz, AL Theiss, A Nusrat, and JM Klapproth. (2007). Invasive Escherichia coli are a feature of Crohn's disease. Lab Invest 87:1042–1054.
  • S Subramanian, JM Rhodes, CA Hart, B Tam, CL Roberts, SL Smith, JE Corkhill, C Winstanley, M Virji, and BJ Campbell. (2008). Characterization of epithelial IL-8 response to inflammatory bowel disease mucosal E. coli and its inhibition by mesalamine. Inflamm Bowel Dis 14:162–175.
  • TK Dalziel. (1913). Chronic intestinal enteritis. Br Med J 2:1068–1070.
  • RJ Greenstein. (2003). Is Crohn's Disease caused by a mycobacterium comparisons with leprosy, tuberculosis and Johne's disease. Lancet Infect Dis 3:507–514.
  • HA Johne, and I Frothengham. (1895). Ein iegenthumilicher fail von tuberculose beim rind (A peculiar case of tuberculosis in a cow). Deutsche Zeitschr Tierm 21:438–454.
  • AM Scanu, TJ Bull, S Cannas, JD Sanderson, LA Sechi, G Dettori, S Zanetti, and J Hermon-Taylor. (2007). Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis infection in irritable bowel syndrome and comparison with Crohn's and Johne's diseases: commen neural and immune pathogenicities. J Clin Microbiol 45:3883–3890.
  • SA Naser, G Ghobrial, C Romero, and JF Valentine. (2004). Culture of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis from the blood of patients with Crohn's disease. Lancet 364:1039–1044.
  • RJ Chiodini, HJ Van Kruiningen, WR Thayer, and JA Coutu. (1986). Spheroplastic phase of mycobacteria isolated from patients with Crohn's disease. J Clin Microbiol 24:357–363.
  • J Haagsma, CJ Mudder, A Eger, J Bruin, RJ Van Ketel, and GN Tytgat. (1989). Mycobacterium paratuberculosis isolated from patients with Crohn's disease in the Netherlands. Scand J Gastroenterol 24:S158–S168.
  • LA Sechi, AM Scanu, P Molicotti, S Cannas, M Mura, G Dettori, G Fadda, and S Zanetti. (2005). Detection and isolation of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis from intestinal mucosal biopsies of patients with and without Crohn's disease in Sardinia. Am J Gastroenterol 100:1529–1536.
  • A Elsaghier, C Prantera, C Moreno, and J Ivanyi. (1992). Antibodies to Mycobacterium paratuberculosis-specific protein antigens in Crohn's disease. Clin Exp Immunol 90:503–508.
  • S Naser, I Shafran, and F El-Zaatari. (1999). Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in Crohn's disease is serologically positive. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 6:282.
  • I Abubakar, D Myhill, SH Aliyu, and PR Hunter. (2008). Detection of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis from patients with Crohn's disease using nucleic acid-based techniques. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Inflamm Bowel Dis 14:401–410.
  • M Feller, K Huwiler, R Stephan, E Altpeter, A Shang, GE Pfyffer, T Jemmi, A Baumgartner, and M Egger. (2007). Mycobacterium avium subspecies tuberculosis and Crohn's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 7:607–613.
  • K Hulten, HM El-Zimaity, TJ Karttunen, A Almashhrawi, MR Schwartz, DY Graham, and FA El-Zaatari. (2001). Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Crohn's diseased tissues by in situ hybridization. Am J Gastroenterol 96:1529–1535.
  • B Dell'Isola, C Poyart, O Goulet, JF Mougenot, E Sadoun-Journo, N Brousse, J Schmitz, C Ricour, and P Berche. (1994). Detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis by polymerase chain reaction in children with Crohn's disease. J Infect Dis 169:449–451.
  • G Lisby, J Andersen, K Engbaek, and V Binder. (1994). Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in intestinal tissue from patients with Crohn's disease demonstrated by a nested primer polymerase chain reaction. Scand J Gastroenterol 29:923–929.
  • RJ Chiodini, HJ Van Kruiningen, RS Merkal, WR ThayerJr, and JA Coutu. (1984). Characteristics of an unclassified Mycobacterium species isolated from patients with Crohn's disease. J Clin Microbiol 20:966–971.
  • JL Stanford, R Dourmashkin, G McIntyre, and S Visuvanathan. Do mycobacteria exist in alternative physical forms and what part do they play in the etiology of inflammatory bowel disease? In RP MacDermott, Ed. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: Current Status and Future Approaches. Pp 503–508. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, (1988).
  • DC Markesich, DY Graham, and HH Yoshimura. (1988). Progress in culture and subculture of spheroplasts and fastidious acid fast bacilli isolated from intestinal tissues. J Clin Microbiol 26:1600–1603.
  • G Gitnick, J Collins, B Beaman, D Brooks, M Arthur, T Imaeda, and M Palieschesky. (1989). Preliminary report on isolation of mycobacteria from patients with Crohn's disease. Dig Dis Sci 34:925–932.
  • EP Green, M LV Tizard, MT Moss, J Thompson, DJ Winterbourne, JJ McFadden, and J Hermon-Taylor. (1989). Sequence and characteristics of IS900, an insertion identified in a human Crohn's disease isolate of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. Nucleic Acid Res 17:9063–9073.
  • ZM Kunze, S Wall, R Appelberg, MT Silva, F Portaels, and JJ McFadden. (1991). IS901, a new member of a widespread class of atypical insertion sequences is associated with pathogenicity in Mycobacterium avium. Mol Microbiol 5:2265–2272.
  • J Hermon-Taylor, TJ Bull, JM Sheridan, J Cheng, ML Stellakis, and N Sumar. (2000). Causation of Crohn's disease by Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. Can J Gastroenterol 14:521–539.
  • M Jeyanathan, DC Alexander, CY Turenne, C Girard, and MA Behr. (2006). Evaluation of in situ methods used to detect Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in samples from patients with Crohn's Disease. J Clin Microbiol 44:2942–2950.
  • JD Sanderson, MT Moss, ML Tizard, and J Hermon-Taylor. (1992). Mycobacterium paratuberculosis DNA in Crohn's disease tissue. Gut 33:890–896.
  • DV Cousins, R Whittington, I Marsh, A Masters, RJ Evans, and P Kluver. (1999). Mycobacteria distinct from Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis isolated from the faeces of ruminants possess IS900-like sequences detectable by IS900 polymerase chain reaction: implications for diagnosis. Mol Cell Probes 13:431–442.
  • S Englund, G Bolske, and KE Johansson. (2002). An IS900-like sequence found in a Mycobacterium sp. other than Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 209:267–271.
  • TJ Bull, EJ McMinn, K Sidi-Boumedine, A Skull, D Durkin, P Neild, G Rhodes, R Pickup, and J Hermon-Taylor. (2003). Detection and verification of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in fresh ileocolonic mucosal biopsy specimens from individuals with and without Crohn's disease. J Clin Microbiol 41:2915–2923.
  • MT Collins, G Lisby, C Moser, D Chicks, S Christensen, M Reichelderfer, N Holby, BA Harms, OO Thomsen, U Skibsted, and V Binder. (2000). Results of multiple diagnostic tests for Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in patients with inflammatory bowel disease and in controls. J Clin Microbiol 38:4373–4381.
  • D Schwartz, I Shafran, C Romero, C Piromalli, J Biggerstaff, N Naser, W Chamberlin, and SA Naser. (2000). Use of short-term culture for identification of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in tissue from Crohn's disease patients. Clin Microbiol Inf 6:303–307.
  • M Peeters, S Joossens, S Vermeire, R Vlietinck, X Bossuyt, and P Rutgeerts. (2001). Diagnostic value of anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae and antineutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibodies in inflammatory bowel disease. Am J Gastroenterol 96:730–734.
  • CN Bernstein, JF Blanchard, P Rawsthorne, and MT Collins. (2004). Population-based case control study of seroprevalence of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in patients with Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. J Clin Microbial 42:1129–1135.
  • Y Ogura, DK Bonen, N Inohara, DL Nicolae, FF Chen, R Ramos, H Britton, T Moran, R Karaliuskas, RH Duer, JP Achkar, SR Brant, TM Bayless, BS Kirschner, SB Hanauer, G Nunez, and JH Cho. (2001). A frameshift mutation in NOD2 associated with susceptibility to Crohn's disease. Nature 411:603–606.
  • LA Sechi, M Gazouli, JC Ikonomopolous, JC Lukas, AM Scanu, N Ahmed, G Fadda, and S Zanetti. (2005). Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, genetic subsceptibility to Crohn's disease, and Sardinians: the way ahead. J Clin Microbiol 43:5275–5277.
  • G Ferwerda, BJ Kullberg, DJ de Jong, SE Girardin, DM Langenberg, R van Crevel, TH Ottenhoff, JW Van der Meer, and MG Netea. (2007). Mycobacterium paratuberculosis is recognized by Toll-like receptors and NOD2. J Leucocyte Biol 82:1011–1018.
  • CM Mpofu, BJ Campbell, S Subramanian, S Marshall-Clarke, CA Hart, A Cross, CL Roberts, A McGoldrick, SW Edwards, and JM Rhodes. (2007). Microbial mannan inhibits bacterial killing by macrophages: A possible pathogenic mechanism for Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 133:1487–1498.
  • R Clancy, Z Ren, J Turton, G Pang, and A Wettstein. (2007). Molecular evidence for Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) in Crohn's disease correlates with enhanced TNF-a secretion. Dig Liver Dis 39:445–451.
  • R Marcus, and J Watt. (1969). seaweeds and ulcerative colitis in laboratory animals. Lancet 2:489–490.
  • R Marcus, AJ Marcus, and J Watt. (1983). Chronic ulcerative disease of the colon in rabbits fed native carrageenans. Proc Nutr Soc 42:155A.
  • J Watt, and R Marcus. (1973). Experimental ulcerative disease of the colon in animals. Gut 14:506–510.
  • M CL Pitcher, ER Beatty, RM Harris, RH Waring, and JH Cummings. (1998). Sulfur metabolism in ulcerative colitis. Investigation of detoxification enzymes in peripheral blood. Dig Dis Sci 43:2080–85.
  • MD Levitt, J Furne, J Springfield, F Suarez, and E DeMaster. (1999). Detoxification of hydrogen sulfide and methanethiol in the cecal mucosa. J Clin Invest 104:1107–1114.
  • KR Gardiner, MI Halliday, GR Barclay, L Milne, D Brown, and S Stephens. (1996). Significance of systemic endotoxaemia in inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 36:897–901.
  • S Christl, HD Eisner, H Kasper, and W Scheppach. (1996). Antagonistic effects of sulfide and butyrate on proliferation of colonic mucosa: a potential role for these agents in the pathogenesis of ulcerative colitis. Dig Dis Sci 41:2477–2481.
  • M CL Pitcher, ER Beatty, and JH Cummings. (2000). The contribution of sulphate reducing bacteria and 5-aminosalicylic acid to faecal sulphide in patients with ulcerative colitis. Gut 46:64–72.
  • Z Dzierzewicz, B Cwalina, L Weglarz, B Wisniowska, and J Szczerba. (2004). Susceptibility of Desulfovibrio desulfuricans intestinal strains to sulfasalazine and its biotransformation products. Med Sci Mon 10:185–190.
  • H Oghe, J Furne, J Springfield, DA Rothenberger, RD Madoff, and MD Levitt. (2005). Association between fecal hydrogen sulfide production and pouchitis. Dis Col Rect 48:469–475.
  • GR Gibson, JH Cummings, and GT Macfarlane. (1991). Growth and activities of sulphatereducing bacteria in gut contents from healthy subjects and patients with ulcerative colitis. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 86:103–112.
  • J Loubinoux, JP Bronowicji, I AC Pereira, JL Moungenel, and AE Faou. (2002). Sulfate-reducing bacteria in human feces and their association with inflammatory diseases. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 40:107–112.
  • V Zinkevich, and IB Beech. (2000). Screening of sulfate-reducing bacteria in colonoscopy samples from healthy and colitic gut mucosa. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 34:147–155.
  • CJ Gebhart, SM Barns, S McOrist, GF Lin, and G HK Lawson. (1993). Ileal Symbiont Intracellularis, an obligate intracellular bacterium of porcine intestines showing a relationship to Desulfovibrio species. Int J Syst Bacteriol 43:533–538.
  • JG Fox, FE Dewhirst, GJ Fraser, BJ Paster, B Shames, and JC Murphy. (1994). Intracellular Campylobacter-like organism from ferrets and hamsters with proliferative bowel disease is a Desulfovibrio sp. J Clin Microbiol 32:1229–1237.
  • MCL Pitcher. Sulphate-reducing bacteria, sulphur metabolism and ulcerative colitis. MD Thesis, University of Cambridge, (1996).
  • W EW Roediger, and S Nance. (1986). Metabolic induction of experimental ulcerative colitis by inhibition of fatty acid oxidation. Brit J Exp Pathol 67:773–872.
  • W EW Roediger, A Duncan, O Kapaniris, and S Millard. (1993). Sulphide impairment of substrate oxidation in rat colonocytes: A biochemical basis for ulcerative colitis?. Clin Sci 85:1–5.
  • W EW Roediger, A Duncan, O Kapaniris, and S Millard. (1993). Reducing sulfur compounds of the colon impair colonocyte nutrition: implications for ulcerative colitis. Gastroenterology 104:802–809.
  • W Babidge, S Millard, and W EW Roediger. (1998). Sulfides impair short chain fatty acid beta-oxidation at acyl-CoA dehydrogenase level in colonocytes: implications for ulcerative colitis. Mol Cell Biochem 18:117–124.
  • J Stein, O Schroder, V Milovic, and WF Caspary. (1995). Mercaptopropionate inhibits butyrate uptake in isolated apical membrane vesicles of the rat distal colon. Gastroenterology 108:673–679.
  • A Fite, GT Macfarlane, JH Cummings, MJ Hopkins, SC Kong, E Furrie, and S Macfarlane. (2004). Identification and quantitation of mucosal and faecal desulfovibrios using real-time PCR. Gut 53:523–529.
  • SC Kong, E Furrie, J Madden, A Kennedy, E Magee, GT Macfarlane, and JH Cummings. (2004). Comparison of hydrogen sulphide detoxification enzyme mRNA expression in normal and ulcerative colitis rectal mucosae. Gut 53 (S3):142.
  • SC Kong, E Furrie, GT Macfarlane, and JH Cummings. (2005). Regional variation of mRNA of hydrogen sulphide detoxification enzymes in the colon may predispose to ulcerative colitis. Gut 54 (S2):352.
  • S Macfarlane, JH Cummings, and GT Macfarlane. Bacterial colonisation of surfaces in the large intestine. In GR Gibson, and M Roberfroid, Eds. Colonic Microflora, Nutrition and Health. Pp 71–87. London: Chapman and Hall, (1999).
  • SC Croucher, AP Houston, CE Bayliss, and RJ Turner. (1983). Bacterial populations associated with different regions of the human colon wall. Appl Environ Microbiol 45:1025–1033.
  • IR Poxton, R Brown, A Sawyerr, and A Ferguson. (1997). Mucosa-associated bacterial flora of the human colon. J Med Microbiol 46:85–91.
  • S Macfarlane, E Furrie, JH Cummings, and GT Macfarlane. (2004). Chemotaxonomic analysis of bacterial populations colonizing the rectal mucosa in patients with ulcerative colitis. Clin Infect Dis 38:1690–1699.
  • H Matsuda, Y Fujiyama, A Andoh, T Ushijima, T Kajinami, and T Bamba. (2000). Characterization of antibody responses against rectal mucosa-associated bacterial flora in patients with ulcerative colitis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 15:61–68.
  • SJ Ott, M Musfeldt, DF Wendeoth, J Hampe, O Brant, UR Folsch, KN Timmis, and S Schreiber. (2004). Reduction in diversity of the colonic mucosa associated bacterial microflora in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 53:685–693.
  • H Sokoi, P Seksik, I Rigottier-Gois, C Lav, P Lepage, I Poddgiaien, P Marteu, and J Dore. (2006). Specificities of the fecal microbiota in inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 12:106–111.
  • M Zhang, B Liu, Y Zhang, H Wei, Y Lei, and L Zhao. (2007). Structural shifts of mucosa-associated lactobacilli and Clostridium leptum subgroup in patients with ulcerative colitis. J Clin Microbiol 45:496–500.
  • R Biblioni, M Mangold, KL Madsen, RN Fedorak, and GW Tannock. (2006). The bacteriology of biopsies differs between newly diagnosed, untreated, Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis patients. J Med Microbiol 55:1141–1149.
  • M Martinez-Medina, X Aidequer, F Gonzalez-Huix, D Acero, and LJ Garcia-Gil. (2006). Abnormal microbiota composition in the ileocolonic mucosa of Crohn's disease patients as revealed by polymeras chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. Inflamm Bowel Dis 12:136–1145.
  • B Ursing, T Alm, F Barany, I Bergelin, K Ganrot-Norlin, J Hoevels, B Huitfeldt, G Jamerot, U Krause, A Krook, B Lindstrom, O Nordle, and A Rosen. (1982). A comparative study of metronidazole and sulfasalazine for active Crohn's disease: the cooperative Crohn's disease study in Sweden. II. Result. Gastroenterology 83:550–562.
  • L Sutherland, J Singleton, J Sessions, S Hanauer, E Krawitt, G Rankin, R Summers, H Mekhjian, N Greenberger, and M Kelly. (1991). Double blind, placebo controlled trial of metronidazole in Crohn's disease. Gut 32:1071–1075.
  • P Rutgeerts, M Hiele, K Geboes, M Peeters, F Penninckx, R Aerts, and R Kerremans. (1995). Controlled trial of metronidazole treatment for the prevention of Crohn's recurrence after ileal resection. Gastroenterology 108:1617–1621.
  • P Blichfeldt, JP Blomhoff, E Mhyre, and E Gjone. (1978). Metronidazole in Crohn's disease. Scand J Gastroenterology 13:123–127.
  • GL Arnold, MR Beaves, VO Pryjdun, and WJ Mook. (2002). Preliminary study of ciprofloxacin in active Crohn's disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 8:10–15.
  • JF Colombel, M Lemann, M Cassagnou, Y Bouhnik, B Duclos, JL Dupas, B Notteghem, and JY Mary. (1999). A controlled trial comparing ciprofloxacin with mesalazine for the treatment of active Crohn's disease. Groupe d'Etudes Therapeutiques des Affections Inflammatoires Digestives (GETAID). Am J Gastroenterol 94:674–678.
  • AH Steinhart, BG Feagan, CJ Wong, M Vandervoort, S Mikolainis, K Croitoru, E Seidman, DJ Leddin, A Bitton, E Drouin, A Cohen, and GR Greenberg. (2002). Combined butesonide and antibiotic therapy for active Crohn's disease: a randomized controlled trial. Gastroenterology 123:33–40.
  • C Prantera, F Zannoni, ML Scribano, E Berto, A Andreoli, A Kohn, and C Luzi. (1996). An antibiotic regimen for the treatment of active Crohn's disease: a randomized, controlled clinical trial of metronidazole plus ciprofloxacin. Am J Gastroenterol 91:328–332.
  • SL Greenbloom, AH Steinhart, and GR Greenberg. (1998). Combination ciprofloxacin and metronidazole for active Crohn's disease. Can J Gastroenterol 12:53–56.
  • NS Ambrose, RN Allan, MR Keighley, DW Burdon, D Youngs, P Barnes, and JE Lennard-Jones. (1985). Antibiotic therapy for treatment in relapse of intestinal Crohn's disease. A prospective randomized study. Dis Colon Rectum 28:81–85.
  • P Rutgeerts, G Van Assche, S Vermiere, G D'Haens, F Baert, M Noman, I Aerden, G De Hertogh, K Geboes, M Hiele, A D'Hoore, and F Penninckx. (2005). Ornidazol for prophylaxis of postoperative Crohn's disease: a randomized double-blind placebo controlled trial. Gastroenterology 128:856–861.
  • C Prantera, H Lochs, M Campieri, ML Scribano, GC Sturniolo, F Castiglione, and M Cottone. (2006). Antibiotic treatment of Crohn's disease: results of a multicentre, double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial with rifaximin. Aliment Pharm Ther 23:1117–1125.
  • CD Freeman, NE Klutman, and KC Lamp. (1997). Metronidazole. A therapeutic review and update. Drugs 54:679–708.
  • G Kolios, P Manousou, L Bourikas, G Notas, N Tsagarakis, I Mouzas, and E Koroumalis. (2006). Ciprofloxacin inhibits cytokine-induced nitric oxide production in human colonic epithelium. Eur J Clin Invest 36:720–729.
  • R Rahimi, S Nikfar, A Rezaie, and A Abdollahi. (2006). A meta-analysis of broad spectrum antibiotic therapy in patients with active Crohn's disease. Clin Ther 28:1983–1988.
  • DE Baker. (2005). Rifaxamin: a nonabsorbable oral antibiotic. Rev Gastroenterol Disord 5:19–30.
  • MG Schultz, HL Rieder, T Hersh, and S Riepe. (1987). Remission of Crohn's disease with antimycobacterial therapy. Lancet II:1391–1392.
  • JB Warren, HC Rees, and TM Cox. (1986). Remission of Crohn's disease with tuberculosis chemotherapy. N Engl J Med 314:182.
  • A Picciotto, GP Gesu, GC Schito, R Testa, G Varagona, and G Celle. (1989). Antimycobacterial therapy in inflammatory bowel disease. Biomed Pharmacother 43:141–143.
  • JL Shaffer, S Hughes, BD Linaker, RD Baker, and LA Turnberg. (1984). Controlled trial of rifampicin and ethambutol in Crohn's disease. Gut 25:203–205.
  • GL Swift, ED Srivastava, R Stone, RD Pullan, RG Newcombe, J Rhodes, S Wilkinson, P Rhodes, G Roberts, BW Lawrie, KT Evans, PA Jenkins, GT Williams, G Strohmeyer, G Kreuzpainter, G AO Thomas, B Calcraft, PS Davies, TJ Morris, and J Morris. (1994). Controlled trial of anti-tuberculous chemotherapy for two years in Crohn's disease. Gut 35:363–368.
  • GA Thomas, GL Swift, JT Green, RG Newcombe, C Braniff-Mathews, J Rhodes, S Wilkinson, G Strohmeyer, and G Kreuzpainter. (1998). Controlled trial of antituberculous chemotherapy in Crohn's disease: a five year follow up study. Gut 42:497–500.
  • C Prantera, A Kohn, R Mangiarotti, A Andreoli, and C Luzi. (1994). Antimycobacterial therapy in Crohn's disease: results of a controlled double-blind trial with a multiple antibiotic regimen. Am J Gastroenterol 89:513–518.
  • RW Goodgame, K Kimball, S Akram, E Ike, CN Ou, F Sutton, and D Graham. (2001). Randomized controlled trial of clarithromycin and ethambutol in the treatment of Crohn's disease. Aliment Pharmacol Therap 15:1861–1866.
  • DY Graham, MT Al-Assi, and M Robinson. (1995). Prolonged remission in Crohn's disease following therapy for Mycobacterium paratuberculosis infection. Gastroenterology 108:A826.
  • NH Afdhal, A Long, J Lennon, J Crowe, and DP O'Donoghue. (1991). Contolled trial of antimycobacterial therapy in Crohn's disease. Clofazimine versus placebo. Dig Dis Sci 36:449–453.
  • I Shafran, L Kugler, FA El-Zaatari, SA Naser, and J Sandoval. (2002). Open clinical trial of rifabutin and clarithromycin therapy in Crohn's disease. Dig Liver Sci 34:22–28.
  • G Basilisco, T Ranzi, C Campanini, L Piodi, and PA Bianchi. (1989). Controlled trial of rifabutin in Crohn's disease. Curr Ther Res 46:242–250.
  • MR Borgaonkar, DG MacIntosh, and JM Fardy. (2000). A meta-analysis of antimycobacterial therapy for Crohn's disease. Am J Gastroenterol 95:725–729.
  • LH Bernstein, MS Frank, IJ Brandt, and SJ Boley. (1980). Healing of perineal Crohn's disease with metronidazole. Gastroenterology 79:357–365.
  • LJ Brandt, LH Bernstein, SJ Boley, and MS Frank. (1982). Metronidazole therapy for perineal Crohn's disease: a follow up study. Gastroenterology 83:383–387.
  • DA Schwartz, JH Pemberton, and WJ Sandborn. (2001). Diagnosis and treatment of perianal fistulas in Crohn disease. Ann Intern Med 135:906–918.
  • LF Duffy, F Daum, SE Fisher, J Selman, SM Vishnubhakat, HW Aiges, JF Markowitz, and M Silverberg. (1985). Peripheral neuropathy in Crohn's disease patients treated with metronidazole. Gastroenterology 88:681–684.
  • RW Chapman, WS Selby, and DP Jewell. (1986). Controlled trial of intravenous metronidazole as an adjunct to corticosteroids in severe ulcerative colitis. Gut 27:1210–1212.
  • T Gilat, G Leichtman, G Delpre, J Eshchar, S Bar Meir, and Z Fireman. (1989). A comparison of metronidazole and sulfasalazine in the maintenance of remission in patients with ulcerative colitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 11:392–395.
  • T Gilat, A Suissa, G Leichtman, G Delpre, M Pavlotzky, A Grossman, and Z Fireman. (1987). A comparative study of metronidazole and sulfasalazine in active, not severe, ulcerative colitis. An Israeli multicenter trial. J Clin Gastroenterol 9:415–417.
  • GJ Mantzaris, A Hatzis, P Kontogiannis, and G Triadaphyllou. (1994). Intravenous tobramycin and metronidazole as an adjunct to corticosteroids in acute, severe ulcerative colitis. Am J Gastroenterol 89:43–46.
  • T Ohkusa, T Nomura, T Terai, H Miwa, O Kobavashi, M Hoio, Y Takei, T Ogihara, S Hirai, I Okavusa, and N Sato. (2005). Effectiveness of antibiotic combination therapy in patients with active ulcerative colitis: a randomized controlled pilot trial with long-term follow-up. Scand J Gastroenterol 11:1334–1342.
  • T Nomura, T Ohkusa, I Okayasu, T Yoshida, M Sakamoto, H Hayashi, Y Benno, S Hirai, M Hojo, O Kobayashi, T Terai, H Miwa, Y Takei, T Ogihara, and N Sato. (2005). Mucosa-associated bacteria in ulcerative colitis before and after antibiotic combination therapy. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 21:1017–1027.
  • UM Turunen, MA Farkkila, K Hakala, K Seppala, A Sivonen, M Ogren, M Vuoristo, VV Valtonen, and TA Miettinen. (1998). Long-term treatment of ulcerative colitis with ciprofloxacin: a prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Gastroenterology 115:1072–1078.
  • GJ Mantzaris, K Petraki, E Archavlis, P Amberiadis, D Kourtessas, A Christidou, and G Triantafyllou. (2001). A prospective randomised controlled trial of intravenous ciprofloxacin as an adjunct to corticosteroids in acute, severe ulcerative colitis. Scand J Gastroenterol 36:971–974.
  • GJ Mantzaris, E Archavlis, P Christoforidis, Kourtessas, P Amberiadis, N Florakis, K Petraki, C Spiliadi, and G. Triantafyllou. (1997). A prospective randomized controlled trial of oral ciprofloxacin in acute ulcerative colitis. Am J Gastroenterol 92:454–456.
  • RJ Dickinson, HJ O'Connor, I Pinder, I Hamilton, D Johnston, and AT Axon. (1985). Double blind controlled trial of oral vancomycin in adjunctive treatment in acute exacerbation of idiopathic colitis. Gut 26:1380–1384.
  • DA Burke, TR Axon, SA Clayden, MF Dixon, D Johnston, and RW Lacey. (1990). The efficacy of tobramycin in the treatment of ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 4:123–129.
  • A Lobo, DA Burke, GM Sobala, and AT Axon. (1993). Oral tobramycin in ulcerative colitis: effect on maintenance of remission. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 7:155–158.
  • F Casellas, N Borruel, M Papo, F Guarner, M Antolin, S Videla, and JR Malagelada. (1998). Antiinflammatory effects of enterically coated amoxicillin-clavulanic acid in active ulcerative colitis. Inflamm Bowel Dis 4:1–5.
  • P Gionchetti, E Rizzello, A Ferrieri, A Venturi, C Brignola, M Ferretti, S Peruzzo, M Miglioli, and M Campieri. (1999). Rifaximin in patients with moderate or severe ulcerative colitis refractory to steroid-treatment: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Dig Dis Sci 44:1220–1221.
  • A Pinto, G Borruto, A Dell'Anna, L Turco, and A Ferrieri. (1997). An open, uncontrolled trial of oral rifaximin, an non-absorbable antibiotic in inflammatory bowel disease refractory to conventional therapy. Eur J Clin Res 9:217–224.
  • T Ohkusa, I Okayasu, T Ogihara, M Ogawa, and N Sato. (2003). Induction of experimental ulcerative colitis by Fusobacterium varium isolated from colonic mucosa of patients with ulcerative colitis. Gut 52:79–83.
  • F Rizzello, P Gionchetti, A Venturi, M Ferretti, S Peruzzo, X Raspanti, M Picard, N Canova, E Palazzini, and M Campieri. (1987). Rifaximin systemic absorption in patients with ulcerative colitis. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 54:91–93.
  • ZD Jiang, S Ke, E Palazzini, L Riopel, and H Dupont. (2000). In vitro activity and fecal concentration of rifaximin after oral administration. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 44:2205–2206.
  • C Scarpignato, and I Pelosini. (2006). Experimental and clinical pharmacology of rifaximin, a gastrointestinal selective antibiotic. Digestion 73:13–27.
  • R Rahimi, S Nikfar, A Rezaie, and M Abdollahi. (2007). A meta-analysis of antibiotic therapy for active ulcerative colitis. Dig Dis Sci 52:2920–2925.
  • P Brigidi, E Swennen, F Rizzello, M Bozzolasco, and D Matteuzzi. (2002). Effects of rifaximin administration on the intestinal microbiota in patients with ulcerative colitis. J Chemother 14:290–295.
  • M Guslandi, G Mezzi, M Sorgi, and PA Testoni. (2000). Saccharomyces boulardii in maintenance treatment in Crohn's disease. Dig Dis Sci 45:1462–1464.
  • A Van Gossum, O Dewit, E Louis, G de Hergtogh, F Baert, F Fontaine, M Devos, M Enslen, M Paintin, and D Franchimont. (2007). Multicenter randomized-controlled clinical trial of probiotics (Lactobacillus johnsonii, LA1) on early endoscopic recurrence of Crohn's disease after ileo-caecal resection. Inflamm Bowel Dis 13:135–142.
  • P Marteau, M Lehman, P Seksik, D Laharie, JF Colombel, Y Bouhnik, G Cadiot, JC Soule, A Bourreille, E Metman, E Lerebours, F Carbonnel, JL Dupas, M Veyrac, B Coffin, J Moreau, V Arbitol, S Blum-Sperisen, and JY Mary. (2006). Ineffectiveness of Lactobacillus johnsonii LA1 for prophylaxis of postoperative recurrence of Crohn's disease: a randomised, double-blind, placebo controlled GETAID trial. Gut 55:842–847.
  • A Bousvaros, S Guandalini, RN Baldassano, C Botelho, J Evans, GD Ferry, B Goldin, L Hartigan, S Kugathasan, J Levy, KF Murray, M Oliva-Hemer, JR Rosh, V Tola, A Zholudev, JA Vanderhoof, and PL Hibberd. (2005). A randomized, double-blind trial of Lactobacillus GG versus placebo in addition to standard maintenance therapy for children with Crohn's disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 11:833–839.
  • M Schultz, A Timmer, HH Herfarth, RB Sartor, JA Vanderhoof, and HC Rath. (2004). Lactobacillus GG in inducing and maintaining remission of Crohn's disease. BMC Gastroenterol 4:5.
  • MA Zocco, L Zileri Dal Verne, A Armuzzi, EC Nista, A Papa, and M Candelli. (2003). Comparison of Lactobacillus GG and mesalazine in maintaining remission of ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 124:A201. (4 Suppl 1)
  • C Prantera, ML Scribano, G Falasco, A Andreoli, and C Luzi. (2002). Ineffectiveness of probiotics in preventing recurrence after curative resection in Crohn's disease: a randomised controlled with Lactobacillus GG. Gut 51:405–409.
  • P Gupta, H Andrew, BS Kirschner, and S Guandalini. (2000). Is Lactobacillus GG helpful in children with Crohn's disease? Results of a preliminary, open-label study. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 31:453–457.
  • M Campieri, F Rizzello, A Venturi, G Poggili, F Ugolini, and U Helwig. (2000). Combination of antibiotic and probiotic treatment is efficacious in prophylaxis of post-operative recurrence of Crohn's disease: a randomized controlled study versus mezalamine. Gastroenterology 118:A781. (4 Suppl 2)
  • HA Malchow. (1997). Crohn's disease and Escherichia coli. A new approach in therapy to maintain remission of colonic Crohn's disease?. J Clin Gastroenterol 25:653–658.
  • M Malin, H Suomalainen, M Saxelin, and E Isolauri. (1996). Promotion of IgA immune response in patients with Crohn's disease by oral bacteriotherapy with Lactobacillus GG. Ann Nutr Metab 40:137–145.
  • VE Rolfe, PJ Fortun, and CJ Hawkey. Bath-Hextall. Probiotics for maintenance of remission in Crohn's disease (Review). The Cochrane Collaboration Issue 1. Pp 1–21. Wiley, (2007).
  • N Borruel, M Carol, F Cassellas, M Antolin, E Espin, J Naval, F Guarner, and JR Malagelada. (2002). Increased mucosal tumour necrosis factor α production in Crohn's disease can be downregulated ex vivo by probiotic bacteria. Gut 51:659–664.
  • W Kruis, E Schuta, P Fric, B Fixa, G Judmaier, and M Stolte. (1997). Double-blind comparison of an oral Escherichia coli preparation and mesalazine in maintaining remission of ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 11:853–858.
  • BJ Rembracken, AM Snelling, PM Hawkey, DM Chalmers, and AT Axon. (1999). Non-pathogenic Escherichia coli versus mesalazine for the treatment of ulcerative colitis: a randomised trial. Lancet 354:635–639.
  • W Kruis, P Fric, J Pokrotnieks, M Lukas, B Fixa, M Kascak, MA Kamm, J Weismueller, C Beglinger, M Stolte, C Wolff, and J Schulze. (2004). Maintaining remission of ulcerative colitis with the probiotic Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 is as effective as with standard mesalazine. Gut 53:1617–1623.
  • M Guslandi, P Giollo, and PA Testoni. (2003). A pilot trial of Saccharomyces boulardii in ulcerative colitis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 15:697–698.
  • MA Zocco, LZ dal Verme, F Cremonini, AC Piscaglia, EC Nista, M Candelli, M Novi, D Rigante, IA Cazzato, V Ojetti, A Armuzzi, G Gasbarrini, and A Gasbarrini. (2006). Efficacy of Lactobacillus GG in maintaining remission of ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 23:1567–1574.
  • F Shanahan, F Guarner, A von Wright, T Vilpponene-Salmela, D O'Donoghue, and B Kiely. (2006). A one year, randomised, double-blind, placebo controlled trial of a lactobacillus or a bifidobacterium probiotic for maintenance of steroid-induced remission of ulcerative colitis. Gastroenterology 130 (S2):A44.
  • HH Cui, CL Chen, JD Wang, YJ Yang, Y Cun, JB Wu, YH Liu, HL Dan, YT Jian, and XQ Chen. (2004). Effects of probiotic on intestinal mucosa of patients with ulcerative colitis. World J Gastroenterol 10:1521–1525.
  • R Biblioni, RN Fedorak, GW Tannock, KL Madsen, P Gionchetti, M Campieri, C De Simone, and RB Sartor. (2005). VSL#3 probiotic-mixture induces remission in patients with active ulcerative colitis. Am J Gastroenterol 100:1539–1546.
  • A Venturi, P Gionchetti, F Rizzello, R Johansson, E Zucconi, P Brigandi, D Matteuzzi, and M Campieri. (1999). Impact on the composition of the fecal flora by a new probiotic preparation: preliminary data on maintenance treatment of patients with ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 13:1103–1108.
  • K Kato, S Mizuno, Y Umesaki, Y Ishii, M Sugitani, A Imaoka, M Otsuka, O Hasunuma, R Kurihara, A Iwwasaki, and Y Arakawa. (2004). Randomized placebo-controlled trial assessing the effect of bifidobacteria-fermented milk on active ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 20:1133–1141.
  • H Ishikawa, I Akedo, Y Umesaki, R Tanaka, A Imaoka, and T Otani. (2003). Randomised controlled trial of the effect of bifidobacteria-fermented milk on ulcerative colitis. J Am Coll Nutr 22:56–63.
  • TJ Borody, EF Warren, S Leis, R Surace, and O Ashman. (2003). Treatment of ulcerative colitis using fecal bacteriotherapy. J Clin Gastroenterol 37:42–47.
  • P Gionchetti, F Rizzello, A Venturi, P Brigidi, D Matteuzzi, G Bazzocchi, G Poggioli, M Miglioli, and M Campieri. (2000). Oral bacteriotherapy as maintenance treatment in patients with chronic pouchitis: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Gastroenterology 119:305–309.
  • P Gionchetti, F Rizzello, U Helwig, A Venturi, KM Lammers, P Brigandi, B Vitali, G Poggioli, M Miglioli, and M Campieri. (2003). Prophylaxis of pouchitis onset with probiotic therapy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Gastroenterology 124:1202–1209.
  • KM Lammers, A Vergopoulos, N Babel, P Gionchetti, F Rizzello, C Morselli, E Caramelli, M Fiorentino, A d'Errico, HD Volk, and M Campieri. (2005). Probiotic therapy in the prevention of pouchitis onset: decreased interleukin-1beta, interleukin-8, and interferon-gamma gene expression. Inflamm Bowel Dis 11:447–454.
  • T Mimura, F Rizzullo, U Helwig, G Poggioli, S Schreiber, IC Talbot, RJ Nicholls, P Gionchetti, M Campieri, and MA Kamm. (2004). Once daily high dose probiotic therapy (VSL#3) for maintaining remission in recurrent or refractory pouchitis. Gut 53:108–114.
  • B Shen, A Brzezinski, VW Fazio, FH Remzi, JP Achkar, AE Bennett, K Sherman, and BA Lashner. (2005). Maintenance therapy with a probiotic in antibiotic-dependent pouchitis: experience in clinical practice. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 22:721–728.
  • S Ulisse, P Gionchetti, S D'Alò, FP Paola Russo, I Pesce, G Ricci, F Rizzello, U Helwig, MG Cifone, M Campieri, and C De Simone. (2001). Expression of cytokines, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and matrix metalloproteinases in pouchitis: effects of probiotic treatment. Am J Gastroenterol 96:2691–2699.
  • W Kuisma, S Mentula, H Jarvinen, A Kahri, M Saxelin, and M Farkkila. (2003). Effect of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG on ileal pouch inflammation and microbial flora. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 17:509–515.
  • MP Gosselinks, WR Schouten, LM van Lieshout, WC Hop, JD Laman, and JG Ruseler-van Embden. (2004). Delay of the first onset of pouchitis by oral intake of the probiotic strain Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG. Dis Colon Rectum 47:876–884.
  • KO Laake, PD Line, K Grzyb, G Aamodt, L Aabakken, A Roset, AB Hvinden, A Bakka, J Eide, A Bjorneklett, and MH Vatn. (2004). Assessment of mucosal inflammation and blood flow in response to four weeks intervention with probiotics in patients operated with a J-configured ileal-pouch-anal-anastomosis (IPAA). Scand J Gastroenterol 39:1228–1235.
  • E Furrie, S Macfarlane, A Kennedy, H Cummings, SV Walsh, DA O'Neil, and GT Macfarlane. (2005). Synbiotic therapy significantly reduces molecular markers of inflammation in patients with active ulcerative colitis: a randomized controlled pilot trial. Gut 54:242–249.
  • CF Welters, E Heinema, FB Thunnissen, AE van den Bogaard, PB Soeters, and CG Baten. (2002). Effect of dietary inulin supplementation on inflammation of pouch mucosa in patients with ileal pouch-anal anastomosis. Dig Colon Rect 45:621–627.
  • TA Hussey, RM Issenman, R Persad, AR Olley, and BA Christensen. (2003). Nutrition therapy in pediatric Crohn's disease patients improves nutrition status and decreases inflammation. J Pediatr Gastroenterol 37:A341.
  • JO Lindsay, K Whelan, AJ Stagg, P Gobin, HO Al-Hassi, N Rayment, MA Kamm, SC Knight, and A Forbes. (2006). Clinical, microbiological and immunological effects of fructo-oligosaccharide in patients with Crohn's disease. Gut 55:348–355.
  • I Chermesh, A Tamir, R Reshef, Y Chowers, A Suissa, D Katz, M Gelber, Z Halpern, S Bengmark, and R Eliakim. (2007). Failure of Synbiotic 2000 to prevent postoperative recurrence of Crohn's disease. Dig Dis Sci 52:385–389.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.