Worldwide contamination of food-crops with mycotoxins: Validity of the widely cited ‘FAO estimate’ of 25%

References

• Adekoya, I., P. Njobeh, A. Obadina, S. Landschoot, K. Audenaert, S. Okoth, M. De Boevre, and S. De Saeger. 2019. Investigation of the metabolic profile and toxigenic variability of fungal species occurring in fermented foods and beverage from Nigeria and South Africa using UPLC-MS/MS. Toxins 11 (2):E85. doi: 10.3390/toxins11020085.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alassane-Kpembi, I., G. Schatzmayr, I. Taranu, D. Marin, O. Puel, and I. P. Oswald. 2017. Mycotoxins co-contamination: Methodological aspects and biological relevance of combined toxicity studies. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 57 (16):3489–507. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2016.1140632.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arroyo-Manzanares, N., K. De Ruyck, V. Uka, L. Gámiz-Gracia, A. M. García-Campaña, S. De Saeger, and J. Diana Di Mavungu. 2018. In-house validation of a rapid and efficient procedure for simultaneous determination of ergot alkaloids and other mycotoxins in wheat and maize. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 410 (22):5567–81. doi: 10.1007/s00216-018-1018-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Battilani, P., M. Camardo Leggieri, V. Rossi, and P. Giorni. 2013. AFLA-maize, a mechanistic model for Aspergillus flavus infection and aflatoxin B1 contamination in maize. Computer and Electronics in Agriculture 94:38–46. doi: 10.1016/j.compag.2013.03.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Battilani, P., V. Rossi, P. Giorni, A. Pietri, A. Gualla, H. J. van der Fels-Klerx, C. J. H. Booij, A. Moretti, A. Logrieco, F. Miglietta, et al. 2012. Modelling, predicting and mapping the emergence of aflatoxins in cereals in the EU due to climate change. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Supporting Publication 9 (EN-223):172.
   Google Scholar
• Battilani, P., P. Toscano, H. J. Van der Fels-Klerx, A. Moretti, M. Camardo Leggieri, C. Brera, A. Rortais, T. Goumperis, and T. Robinson. 2016. Aflatoxin B1 contamination in maize in Europe increases due to climate change. Scientific Reports 6 (1):24328. doi: 10.1038/srep24328.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Biomin. 2017. Biomin World mycotoxin survey 2017. Annual Report No. 14. Accessed May 11, 2018. https://www.biomin.net/en/blog-posts/2017-biomin-mycotoxin-survey-results/.
   Google Scholar
• Boutrif, E., and C. Canet. 1998. Mycotoxin prevention and control: FAO programmes. Revue de Médecine Vétérinaire 149:681–94.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brouwer-Brolsma, E. M., L. Brennan, C. A. Drevon, H. van Kranen, C. Manach, L. O. Dragsted, H. M. Roche, C. Andres-Lacueva, S. J. L. Bakker, J. Bouwman, et al. 2017. Combining traditional dietary assessment methods with novel metabolomics techniques: Present efforts by the Food Biomarker Alliance. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 76 (4):619–27. doi: 10.1017/S0029665117003949.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bui-Klimke, T., and F. Wu. 2014. Evaluating weight of evidence in the mystery of Balkan Endemic Nephropathy. Risk Analysis 34 (9):1688–705. doi: 10.1111/risa.12239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bureau, J.-C., and J. Swinnen. 2018. EU policies and global food security. Global Food Security 16:106–15. doi: 10.1016/j.gfs.2017.12.001.
   Google Scholar
• CFIA. 2017. RG-8 Regulatory guidance. Contaminants in feed (formerly RG-1, Chapter 7), Section 1: Mycotoxins in livestock feed. Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA). Accessed March 15, 2018. http://www.inspection.gc.ca/animals/feeds/regulatory-guidance/rg-8/eng/1347383943203/1347384015909.
   Google Scholar
• Codex Alimentarius. 1995. Codex Alimentarius international food standards, General standard for contaminants and toxins in food and feed. CXS 193-1995. Adopted in 1995. Revised in 1997, 2006, 2008, 2009. Amended in 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO).
   Google Scholar
• Deepa, N., and M. Y. Sreenivasa. 2017. Fumonisins: A review on its global occurrence, epidemiology, toxicity and detection. Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Research 4 (6):1093.
   Google Scholar
• de Lourdes Mendes de Souza, M., M. Sulyok, O. Freitas-Silva, S. Soares Costa, C. Brabet, M. Machinski Junior, B. Leiko Sekiyama, E. Azevedo Vargas, R. Krska, and R. Schuhmacher. 2013. Cooccurrence of mycotoxins in maize and poultry feeds from Brazil by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. The Scientific World Journal 2013:427369. doi: 10.1155/2013/427369.
   Google Scholar
• Diana Di Mavungu, J., D. A. Larionova, S. V. Malysheva, C. Van Peteghem, and S. De Saeger. 2011. Survey on ergot alkaloids in cereals intended for human consumption and animal feeding. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Supporting Publication 8:EN-214.
   Google Scholar
• Doppler, M., B. Kluger, C. Bueschl, C. Schneider, R. Krska, S. Delcambre, K. Hiller, M. Lemmens, and R. Schuhmacher. 2016. Stable isotope-assisted evaluation of different extraction solvents for untargeted metabolomics of plants. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 17 (7):1017. doi: 10.3390/ijms17071017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dorokhin, D., W. Haasnoot, M. C. Franssen, H. Zuilhof, and M. W. Nielen. 2011. Imaging surface plasmon resonance for multiplex microassay sensing of mycotoxins. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 400 (9):3005–11. doi: 10.1007/s00216-011-4973-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EC. 2006a. Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs. European Commission. Official Journal of the European Union L 364:5–24.
   Google Scholar
• EC. 2006b. Commission Regulation (EC) No 401/2006 of 23 February 2006 laying down the methods of sampling and analysis for the official control of the levels of mycotoxins in foodstuffs. European Commission. Official Journal of the European Union L 70:12–34.
   Google Scholar
• EC. 2006c. Commission Recommendation of 17 August 2006 on the presence of deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, T-2 and HT-2 and fumonisins in products intended for animal feeding (2006/576/EC). European Commission. Official Journal of the European Union L 229:7–9.
   Google Scholar
• EC. 2013. Commission Recommendation of 27 March 2013 on the presence of T-2 and HT-2 toxin in cereals and cereal products (2013/165/EU). European Commission. Official Journal of the European Union L 91:12–5.
   Google Scholar
• EC. 2018a. European Commission, Directorate General Agri, EU Crops Market Observatory – Cereals, updated on 1.3.2018. Accessed March 10, 2018. https://circabc.europa.eu/sd/a/df783825-dc2c-4673-a66e-0cbd5c5be336/cereals-dashboard_en.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• EC. 2018b. European Commission, Agriculture and Rural Development, Cereals, oilseeds and protein crops, rice. Accessed March 10, 2018. https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/cereals_en.
   Google Scholar
• Ediage, E. N., J. D. Di Mavungu, I. Y. Goryacheva, C. Van Peteghem, and S. De Saeger. 2012. Multiplex flow-through immunoassay formats for screening of mycotoxins in a variety of food matrices. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 403:265–78. doi: 10.1007/s00216-012-5803-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards, S. G., and P. Jennings. 2018. Impact of agronomic factors on fusarium mycotoxins in harvested wheat. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 35 (12):2443–54. doi: 10.1080/19440049.2018.1543954.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2004a. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) related to aflatoxin B1 as undesirable substance in animal feed. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 2:39.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2004b. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) on a request from the commission related to deoxynivalenol (DON) as undesirable substance in animal feed. EFSA Journal 72:1.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2004c. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) related to ochratoxin A (OTA) as undesirable substance in animal feed. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 2:101.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2005a. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) related to fumonisins as undesirable substances in animal feed. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 3:235.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2005b. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) related to ergot as undesirable substance in animal feed. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 3:225.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2006. Scientific opinion related to ochratoxin A in food. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 4:365.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2007. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) related to the potential increase of consumer health risk by a possible increase of the existing maximum levels for aflatoxins in almonds, hazelnuts and pistachios and derived products. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 5:446.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2009. Statement of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) on a request from the European Commission on the effects on public health of an increase of the levels for aflatoxin total from 4 μg/kg to 10 μg/kg for tree nuts other than almonds, hazelnuts and pistachios. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 6:1168.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2010. Statement of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) on recent scientific information on the toxicity of ochratoxin A. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 8:1626.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2011. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) on the risks for public health related to the presence of T-2 and HT-2 toxins in food and feed. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 9:2481.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2012a. Effect on dietary exposure of an increase of the levels for aflatoxin total from 4 μg/kg to 10 μg/kg for dried figs. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Supporting Publications 9:EN-311.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2012b. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) on ergot alkaloids in food and feed. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 10:2798.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2012c. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) on the risks to human and animal health related to the presence of citrinin in food and feed. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 10:2605.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2013. Aflatoxins (sum of B1, B2, G1, G2) in cereals and cereal-derived food products. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Supporting Publications 10:EN-406.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2014. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) on the risks for human and animal health related to the presence of modified forms of certain mycotoxins in food and feed. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 12:3916.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2016. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) on the appropriateness to set a group health-based guidance value for zearalenone and its modified forms. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 14:4425.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2017a. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) on the appropriateness to set a group health-based guidance value for nivalenol and its modified forms. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 15:4751.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2017b. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) on the appropriateness to set a group health-based guidance value for T-2 and HT-2 toxin and its modified forms 2017. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 15:4655.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2017c. Opinion the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) on the risks for animal health related to the presence of zearalenone and its modified forms in feed. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 15:4851.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2017d. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) on the risks to human and animal health related to the presence of deoxynivalenol and its acetylated and modified forms in food and feed. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 15:4718.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2017e. Scientific report on human and animal dietary exposure to ergot alkaloids. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 15:4902.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2018a. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) on the appropriateness to set a group health-based guidance value for fumonisins and their modified forms. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 16:5172.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2018b. EFSA Scientific Colloquium 24 – ‘omics in risk assessment: State of the art and next steps. EFSA supporting publication. EFSA Journal 2018:EN-1512.
   Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2018c. Scientific statement on the effect on public health of a possible increase of the maximum level for ‘aflatoxin total’ from 4 to 10 µg/kg in peanuts and processed products thereof, intended for direct human consumption or use as an ingredient in foodstuffs. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal 16:5175.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EFSA. 2019. Guidance on harmonised methodologies for human health, animal health and ecological risk assessment of combined exposure to multiple chemicals. EFSA Journal 17 (3):5634, 77.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EP and Council. 2002. Directive 2002/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 May 2002 on undesirable substances in animal feed. European Parliament and Council of the European Union. Official Journal of the European Communities L 140:10–21.
   Google Scholar
• EP and Council. 2001. Regulation (EC) No 1049/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2001 regarding public access to European Parliament, Council and Commission documents. European Parliament and Council of the European Union. Official Journal of the European Communities L 145:43–8.
   Google Scholar
• Eskola, M., A. Altieri, and J. Galobart. 2018. Overview of the activities of the European Food Safety Authority on mycotoxins in food and feed. World Mycotoxin Journal 11 (2):277–89. doi: 10.3920/WMJ2017.2270.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EUR-Lex. 2018. An official website of European Union law and other public documents of the European Union. Access to European Union law. Accessed March 1, 2018. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/homepage.html.
   Google Scholar
• FAMIC. 2011. Aflatoxin. Food and Agricultural Materials Inspection Centre (FAMIC). Accessed March 4, 2018. http://www.famic.go.jp/ffis/oie/obj/hc_aflatoxin.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• FAMIC. 2015. Regulation value of pesticides, heavy metals and mycotoxins (administrative guideline) (revised December 18, 2015). Food and Agricultural Materials Inspection Centre (FAMIC). Accessed March 4, 2018. http://www.famic.go.jp/ffis/feed/r_safety/r_feeds_safety22.html.
   Google Scholar
• FAO. 2015. The State of Agricultural Commodity Markets 2015–2016. Trade and food security: Achieving a better balance between national priorities and the collective good. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Accessed April 19, 2018. http://www.fao.org/publications/soco/the-state-of-agricultural-commodity-markets-2015-16/en/.
   Google Scholar
• FDA. 1980a. Compliance Policy Guide Sec. 555.400 Foods – Adulteration with aflatoxin (October 1, 1980). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Accessed March 26, 2018. https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/ChemicalContaminantsMetalsNaturalToxinsPesticides/default.htm.
   Google Scholar
• FDA. 1980b. Compliance Policy Guide Sec. 570.375 Aflatoxin in peanuts and peanut products (October 1, 1980). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Accessed March 26, 2018. https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/ChemicalContaminantsMetalsNaturalToxinsPesticides/default.htm.
   Google Scholar
• FDA. 1982. Compliance Policy Guide Sec. 570.500 Pistachio nuts – Aflatoxin adulteration (October 1, 1982). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Accessed March 25, 2018. https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/ChemicalContaminantsMetalsNaturalToxinsPesticides/default.htm.
   Google Scholar
• FDA. 1983. Compliance Policy Guide Sec. 570.200 Brazil nuts – Adulteration with aflatoxin (August 1, 1983). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Accessed March 26, 2018. https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/ChemicalContaminantsMetalsNaturalToxinsPesticides/default.htm.
   Google Scholar
• FDA. 2001a. Compliance Policy Guidance Sec. 510.150 Apple juice, apple juice concentrates, and apple juice products – Adulteration with patulin (October 22, 2001). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Accessed March 26, 2018. https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/ChemicalContaminantsMetalsNaturalToxinsPesticides/default.htm.
   Google Scholar
• FDA. 2001b. Guidance for Industry. Fumonisin levels in human foods and animal feeds (November 9, 2001). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Accessed March 25, 2018. https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/ChemicalContaminantsMetalsNaturalToxinsPesticides/default.htm.
   Google Scholar
• FDA. 2010. Guidance for Industry. Advisory levels for deoxynivalenol (DON) in finished wheat products for human consumption and grains and grain by-products used for animal feed (June 29, 2010). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Accessed March 25, 2018. https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/ChemicalContaminantsMetalsNaturalToxinsPesticides/default.htm.
   Google Scholar
• FSANZ. 2017. Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code, 2017. Schedule 19, Maximum levels of contaminants and natural toxicants. Prepared by Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) on 13 April 2017. Australian Government, Federal Register of Legislation. Accessed March 25, 2018. https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2017C00333.
   Google Scholar
• GB. 2017. Maximum levels of mycotoxins in food, China Food Safety National Standard GB 2761-2017. Released March 17, 2017, implemented September 17, 2017. In Chinese.
   Google Scholar
• Grenier, B., and I. P. Oswald. 2011. Mycotoxin co-contamination of food and feed: Meta-analysis of publications describing toxicological interactions. World Mycotoxin Journal 4 (3):285–313. doi: 10.3920/WMJ2011.1281.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IARC. 1983. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans. Some food additives, feed additives and naturally occurring substances. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Volume 31, Lyon, France.
   Google Scholar
• IARC. 1986. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Some naturally occurring and synthetic food components, furocoumarins and ultraviolet radiation. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Volume 40, Lyon, France.
   Google Scholar
• IARC. 1993. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Some naturally occurring substances: Food items and constituents, heterocyclic aromatic amines and mycotoxins. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Volume 56, Lyon, France.
   Google Scholar
• IARC. 2002. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Some traditional herbal medicines, some mycotoxins, naphthalene and styrene. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Volume 82, Lyon, France.
   Google Scholar
• IARC. 2012. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Chemical agents and related occupations. A review of human carcinogens. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Volume 100 F, Lyon, France.
   Google Scholar
• IARC. 2015. Mycotoxin control in low- and middle-income countries. IARC Working Group report no. 9, eds. C. P. Wild, J. D. Miller, and J. D. Groopman. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer.
   Google Scholar
• Iqbal, S. Z., S. Malik, M. R. Asi, J. Selamat, and N. Malik. 2018. Natural occurrence of patulin in different fruits, juices and smoothies and evaluation of dietary intake in Punjab, Pakistan. Food Control 84:370–4. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.08.024.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jard, G., T. Liboz, F. Mathieu, A. Guyonvarc'h, and A. Lebrihi. 2011. Review of mycotoxin reduction in food and feed: From prevention in the field to detoxification by adsorption or transformation. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 28:1590–609. doi: 10.1080/19440049.2011.595377.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JECFA. 1996. Toxicological evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. Prepared by the Forty-forth meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). JECFA Monographs. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, IPCS – International Programme on Chemical Safety, WHO Food Additive Series No. 35, World Health Organization, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• JECFA. 1997. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. Forty-sixth report of Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, WHO Technical Report Series 868, World Health Organization, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• JECFA. 1998. Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. Prepared by the Forty-ninth meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). JECFA Monographs. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, IPCS – International Programme on Chemical Safety, WHO Food Additives Series No. 40, World Health Organization, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• JECFA. 1999. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. Forty-sixth report of Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, WHO Technical Report Series 884, World Health Organization, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• JECFA. 2000. Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. Prepared by the Fifty-third meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). JECFA Monographs. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, IPCS – International Programme on Chemical Safety, WHO Food Additives Series No. 44, World Health Organization, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• JECFA. 2001. Safety evaluation of certain mycotoxins in food. Prepared by the Fifty-sixth meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee in Food Additives (JECFA). JECFA Monographs. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, IPCS – International Programme on Chemical Safety, WHO Food Additives Series No. 47, FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 74.
   Google Scholar
• JECFA. 2002. Evaluation of certain mycotoxins in food. Fifty-sixth report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, WHO Technical Report Series 906, World Health Organization, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• JECFA. 2007. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. Sixty-eighth report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, WHO Technical Report Series 947, World Health Organization, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• JECFA. 2008. Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. Prepared by the Sixty-eighth meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). JECFA Monographs. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, IPCS – International Programme on Chemical Safety, WHO Food Additives Series No. 59, World Health Organization, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• JECFA. 2011. Safety evaluation of certain contaminants in food. Prepared by the Seventy-second meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee in Food Additives (JECFA). JECFA Monographs. WHO Food Additives Series No. 63, FAO JECFA Monographs 8. World Health Organization, Geneva, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
   Google Scholar
• JECFA. 2012. Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. Prepared by the Seventy-fourth meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). JECFA Monographs. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, WHO Food Additives Series No. 65, World Health Organization, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• JECFA. 2017. Evaluation of certain contaminants in food. Eighty-third report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, WHO Technical Report Series 1002, World Health Organization, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• JECFA. 2018. Safety evaluation of certain contaminants in food. Prepared by the eighty-third meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). WHO Food Additives Series No. 74, FAO JECFA Monographs 19 bis. World Health Organization, Geneva, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
   Google Scholar
• Joshi, S., R. M. Annida, H. Zuilhof, T. A. van Beek, and M. W. Nielen. 2016. Analysis of mycotoxins in beer using a portable nanostructured imaging surface plasmon resonance biosensor. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 64 (43):8263–71. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b04106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kos, J., J. Mastilović, E. J. Hajnal, and B. Šarić. 2013. Natural occurrence of aflatoxins in maize harvested in Serbia during 2009–2012. Food Control 34 (1):31–4. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.04.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kovalsky, P., G. Kos, K. Nährer, C. Schwab, T. Jenkins, G. Schatzmayr, M. Sulyok, and R. Krska. 2016. Co-occurrence of regulated, masked and emerging mycotoxins and secondary metabolites in finished feed and maize – An extensive survey. Toxins 8 (12):363. doi: 10.3390/toxins8120363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krska, R., and C. Crews. 2008. Significance, chemistry and determination of ergot alkaloids: A review. Food Additives & Contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment 25 (6):722–31. doi: 10.1080/02652030701765756.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, H. J., and D. Ryu. 2017. Worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in cereals and cereal-derived food products: Public health perspectives of their co-occurrence. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 65 (33):7034–51. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b04847.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leslie, J. F., and A. F. Logrieco. 2014. Mycotoxin reduction in grain chains. Ames, IA: Wiley Blackwell, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• López Sánchez, P., M. de Nijs, M. Spanjer, A. Pietri, T. Bertuzzi, A. Starski, J. Postupolski, M. Castellari, and M. Hortós. 2017. Generation of occurrence data on citrinin in food. European Food Safety Authority. EFSA supporting publication, EN-1177.
   Google Scholar
• Magan, N., and D. Aldred. 2007. Post-harvest control strategies: Minimizing mycotoxins in the food chain. International Journal of Food Microbiology 119 (1–2):131–9. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.07.034.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malachová, A., M. Stránská, M. Václavíková, C. T. Elliott, C. Black, J. Meneely, J. Hajšlová, C. N. Ezekiel, R. Schuhmacher, and R. Krska. 2018. Advanced LC-MS-based methods to study the co-occurrence and metabolization of multiple mycotoxins in cereals and cereal-based food. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 410 (3):801–25. doi: 10.1007/s00216-017-0750-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malachová, A., M. Sulyok, E. Beltrán, F. Berthiller, and R. Krska. 2014. Optimization and validation of a quantitative liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method covering 295 bacterial and fungal metabolites including all regulated mycotoxins in four model food matrices. Journal of Chromatography A 1362:145–56. doi: 10.1016/j.chroma.2014.08.037.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mannon, J., and E. Johnson. 1985. Fungi down on the farm. New Scientist 1445:12–6.
   Google Scholar
• Marin, S., A. J. Ramos, G. Cano-Sancho, and V. Sanchis. 2013. Mycotoxins: Occurrence, toxicology, and exposure assessment. Food and Chemical Toxicology 60:218–37. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.07.047.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCormick, S. P., A. M. Stanley, N. A. Stover, and N. J. Alexander. 2011. Trichothecenes: From simple to complex mycotoxins. Toxins 3 (7):802–14. doi: 10.3390/toxins3070802.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, H., Z. D. Skhosana, M. Motlanthe, W. Louw, and E. Rohwer. 2019. Long term monitoring (2014–2018) of multi-mycotoxins in South African commercial maize and wheat with a locally developed and validated LC-MS/MS method. Toxins 11 (5):271. doi: 10.3390/toxins11050271.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MHLW. 2018. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Food Safety Standards and Evaluation Division, Pharmaceutical Safety and Environmental Health Bureau. Information about imported foods. Safety of imported foods. Accessed March 26, 2018. http://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/policy/health-medical/food/dl/leaflet.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Monbaliu, S., C. Van Poucke, C. Detavernier, F. Dumoulin, M. Van De Velde, E. Schoeters, S. Van Dyck, O. Averkieva, C. Van Peteghem, and S. De Saeger, 2010. Occurrence of mycotoxins in feed as analyzed by a multimycotoxin LC-MS/MS method. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry 58 (1):66–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mornar, A., M. Sertić, and B. Nigović. 2013. Development of a rapid LC/DAD/FLD/MSn method for the simultaneous determination of monacolins and citrinin in red fermented rice products. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 61 (5):1072–80. doi: 10.1021/jf304881g.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nathanail, A. V., J. Syvähuoko, A. Malachova, M. Jestoi, E. Varga, H. Michlmayr, G. Adam, E. Sieviläinen, F. Berthiller, and K. Peltonen. 2015. Simultaneous determination of major type A and B trichothecenes, zearalenone and certain modified metabolites in Finnish cereal grains with a novel liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 407 (16):4745–55. doi: 10.1007/s00216-015-8676-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Njumbe Ediage, E., C. Van Poucke, and S. De Saeger. 2015. A multi-analyte LC-MS/MS method for the analysis of 23 mycotoxins in different sorghum varieties: The forgotten sample matrix. Food Chemistry 177:397–404. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.01.060.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, D. L., H. Njapau, and E. Boutrif. 1999. Minimizing risks posed by mycotoxins utilizing the HACCP concept. FAO Food, Nutrition and Agriculture Journal 23:49–56.
   Google Scholar
• Paterson, R. R. M., and N. Lima. 2017. Thermophilic fungi to dominate aflatoxigenic/mycotoxigenic fungi on food under global warming. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14 (2):199–210. doi: 10.3390/ijerph14020199.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters, J., R. van Dam, R. van Doorn, D. Katerere, F. Berthiller, W. Haasnoot, and M. W. F. Nielen. 2017. Mycotoxin profiling of 1000 beer samples with a special focus on craft beer. PLoS One 12 (10):e0185887. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0185887.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitt, J. I., and J. D. Miller. 2017. A concise history of mycotoxin research. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 65 (33):7021–33. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b04494.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pleadin, J., M. Zadravec, T. Lešić, N. Vahčić, J. Frece, M. Mitak, and K. Markov. 2018. Co-occurrence of ochratoxin a and citrinin in unprocessed cereals established during a three-year investigation period. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part B 11 (1):20–5. doi: 10.1080/19393210.2017.1389994.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puel, O., P. Galtier, and I. P. Oswald. 2010. Biosynthesis and toxicological effects of patulin. Toxins 2 (4):613–31. doi: 10.3390/toxins2040613.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rofiat, A. S., F. Fanelli, O. Atanda, M. Sulyok, G. Cozzi, S. Bavaro, R. Krska, A. F. Logrieco, and C. N. Ezekiel. 2015. Fungal and bacterial metabolites associated with natural contamination of locally processed rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Nigeria. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 32:950–9. doi: 10.1080/19440049.2015.1027880.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SCF. 1999. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on Fusarium toxins. Part 1: Deoxynivalenol (DON). Scientific Committee on Food. Accessed February 15, 2018. https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/files/safety/docs/cs_contaminants_catalogue_out44_en.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• SCF. 2000a. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on Fusarium toxins. Part 2: Zearalenone (ZEA). Scientific Committee on Food. Accessed February 15, 2018. https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/files/safety/docs/cs_contaminants_catalogue_out65_en.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• SCF. 2000b. Minute statement on patulin. Expressed by the Scientific Committee on Food during the plenary meeting on 8 March 2000. Scientific Committee on Food. Accessed March 5, 2018. https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/files/safety/docs/cs_contaminants_catalogue_patulin_out55_en.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• SCOOP. 2002. Assessment of dietary intake of patulin by the population of EU Member States, Reports on tasks for scientific cooperation, Report of experts participating in Task 3.2.8, March 2002. Directorate-General Health and Consumer Protection.
   Google Scholar
• Shephard, G. 2008. Risk assessment of aflatoxins in food in Africa. Food Additives & Contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment 25 (10):1246–56. doi: 10.1080/02652030802036222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shephard, G. S., H. M. Burger, L. Gambacorta, Y. Y. Gong, R. Krska, J. P. Rheeder, M. Solfrizzo, C. Srey, M. Sulyok, A. Visconti, et al. 2013. Multiple mycotoxin exposure determined by urinary biomarkers in rural subsistence farmers in the former Transkei, South Africa. Food and Chemical Toxicology 62:217–25. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.08.040.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sieger, M., G. Kos, M. Sulyok, M. Godejohann, R. Krska, and B. Mizaikoff. 2017. Portable infrared laser spectroscopy for on-site mycotoxin analysis. Scientific Reports 7 (1):44028. doi: 10.1038/srep44028.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Simader, A. M., B. Kluger, N. K. N. Neumann, C. Bueschl, M. Lemmens, G. Lirk, R. Krska, and R. Schuhmacher. 2015. QCScreen: A software tool for data quality control in LC-HRMS based metabolomics. BMC Bioinformatics 16 (1):341. doi: 10.1186/s12859-015-0783-x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stiborová, M., V. M. Arlt, and H. H. Schmeiser. 2016. Balkan endemic nephropathy: An update on its aetiology. Archives of Toxicology 90 (11):2595–615. doi: 10.1007/s00204-016-1819-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Streit, E., K. Naehrer, I. Rodrigues, and G. Schatzmayr. 2013. Mycotoxin occurrence in feed and feed raw materials worldwide: Long-term analysis with special focus on Europe and Asia. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 93 (12):2892–9. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.6225.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Topi, D., B. Jakovac-Strajn, K. Pavšič-Vrtač, and G. Tavčar-Kalcher. 2017. Occurrence of ergot alkaloids in wheat from Albania. Food Additives & Contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment 34 (8):1333–43. doi: 10.1080/19440049.2017.1307528.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uhlig, S., G. Eriksen, I. Hofgaard, R. Krska, E. Beltrán, and M. Sulyok. 2013. Faces of a changing climate: Semi-quantitative multi-mycotoxin analysis of grain grown in exceptional climatic conditions in Norway. Toxins 5 (10):1682–97. doi: 10.3390/toxins5101682.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Fels-Klerx, H., J. E. Olesen, M. Madsen, and P. Goedhart. 2012a. Climate change increases deoxynivalenol contamination of wheat in North-Western Europe. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 29 (10):1593–604. doi: 10.1080/19440049.2012.691555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Fels-Klerx, H., J. E. Olesen, L.-J. Naustvoll, Y. Friocourt, M. Mengelers, and J. Christensen. 2012b. Climate change impacts on natural toxins in food production systems, exemplified by deoxynivalenol in wheat and diarrhetic shellfish toxins. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 29 (10):1647–59. doi: 10.1080/19440049.2012.714080.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Fels-Klerx, H. J., C. Liu, and P. Battilani. 2016. Modelling climate change impacts on mycotoxin contamination. World Mycotoxin Journal 9 (5):717–26. doi: 10.3920/WMJ2016.2066.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanheule, A., K. Audenaert, M. De Boevre, S. Landschoot, B. Bekaert, F. Munaut, M. Eeckhout, M. Höfte, S. De Saeger, and G. Haesaert. 2014. The compositional mosaic of Fusarium species and their mycotoxins in unprocessed cereals, food and feed products in Belgium. International Journal of Food Microbiology 181:28–36. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.04.012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varga, E., T. Glauner, F. Berthiller, R. Krska, R. Schuhmacher, and M. Sulyok. 2013. Development and validation of a (semi-)quantitative UHPLC-MS/MS method for the determination of 191 mycotoxins and other fungal metabolites in almonds, hazelnuts, peanuts and pistachios. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 405 (15):5087–104. doi: 10.1007/s00216-013-6831-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warth, B., A. Parich, J. Atehnkeng, R. Bandyopadhyay, R. Schuhmacher, M. Sulyok, and R. Krska. 2012. Quantitation of mycotoxins in food and feed from Burkina Faso and Mozambique using a modern LC-MS/MS multitoxin method. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 60 (36):9352–63. doi: 10.1021/jf302003n.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warth, B., A. Parich, C. Bueschl, D. Schoefbeck, N. K. N. Neumann, B. Kluger, K. Schuster, R. Krska, G. Adam, M. Lemmens, and R. Schuhmacher. 2015. GC-MS based targeted metabolic profiling identifies changes in the wheat metabolome following deoxynivalenol treatment. Metabolomics 11 (3):722–38. doi: 10.1007/s11306-014-0731-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. 1990. Selected mycotoxins: Ochratoxins, trichothecenes, ergot. Environmental Health Criteria Monographs. United Nations Environment Programme, International Labour Organisation, World Health Organization. International Programme on Chemical Safety, Environmental Health Criteria 105.
   Google Scholar
• WHO. 2000. Fumonisin B1. Environmental Health Criteria Monographs. United Nations Environment Programme, International Labour Organisation, World Health Organization. International Programme on Chemical Safety. Environmental Health Criteria 219.
   Google Scholar
• WHO. 2018. FOSCOLLAB Database. Chemical Overview Dashboard – Integrated summary elements from JECFA Evaluations Database, GEMS/Food Contaminants database and the WHO Collaborating Centres Database. Accessed 13 March 2018. https://extranet.who.int/sree/Reports?op=vs_html&path=/WHO_HQ_Reports/G7/PROD/EXT/chemical_overview&userid=G7_ro&password=inetsoft123.
   Google Scholar
• Wu, F., and N. J. Mitchell. 2016. How climate change and regulations can affect the economics of mycotoxins. World Mycotoxin Journal 9 (5):653–63. doi: 10.3920/WMJ2015.2015.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar