Nutritional and health beneficial properties of saffron (Crocus sativus L): a comprehensive review

References

• Abe, K., and H. Saito. 2000. Effects of saffron extract and its constituent crocin on learning behaviour and long term potentiation. Phytotherapy Research 14 (3):149–152. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1573(200005)14:3<149::AID-PTR665>3.0.CO;2-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad, A. S., M. A. Ansari, M. Ahmad, S. Saleem, S. Yousuf, M. N. Hoda, and F. Islam. 2005. Neuroprotection by crocetin in a hemi-parkinsonian rat model. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 81 (4):805–13. doi: 10.1016/j.pbb.2005.06.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmadpanah, M., F. Ramezanshams, A. Ghaleiha, S. Akhondzadeh, D. S. Bahmani, and S. Brand. 2019. Crocus Sativus L. (saffron) versus sertraline on symptoms of depression among older people with major depressive disorders-a double-blind, randomized intervention study. Psychiatry Research 282:112613. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112613.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akhondzadeh, S., M. S. Sabet, M. H. Harirchian, M. Togha, H. Cheraghmakani, S. Razeghi, S. S. Hejazi, M. H. Yousefi, R. Alimardani, A. Jamshidi, et al. 2010a. Saffron in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s disease: A 16-week, randomized and placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics 35 (5):581–8., doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2710.2009.01133.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akhondzadeh, S., M. Shafiee Sabet, M. H. Harirchian, M. Togha, H. Cheraghmakani, S. Razeghi, S. S. Hejazi, M. H. Yousefi, R. Alimardani, A. Jamshidi, et al. 2010b. A 22-week, multicenter, randomized, double-blind controlled trial of Crocus sativus in the treatment of mild-to-moderate Alzheimer’s disease. Psychopharmacology 207 (4):637–43. doi: 10.1007/s00213-009-1706-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alavizadeh, S. H., and H. Hosseinzadeh. 2014. Bioactivity assessment and toxicity of crocin: A comprehensive review. Food and Chemical Toxicology : An International Journal Published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association 64:65–80. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.11.016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amin, B., M. Malekzadeh, M. R. Heidari, and H. Hosseinzadeh. 2015. Effect of Crocus sativus extracts and its active constituent safranal on the harmaline-induced tremor in mice. Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences 18: 449–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asadi, F., A. H. Jamshidi, F. Khodagholi, A. Yans, L. Azimi, M. Faizi, L. Vali, M. Abdollahi, M. H. Ghahremani, and M. Sharifzadeh. 2015. Reversal effects of crocin on amyloid β-induced memory deficit: Modification of autophagy or apoptosis markers. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 139 (Pt A):47–58. doi: 10.1016/j.pbb.2015.10.011.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Assimiadis, M. K., P. A. Tarantilis, and M. G. Polissiou. 1997. Characterization of cis-trans isomers of saffron carotenoids by UV-VIS, FT-Raman and 1 H NMR spectroscopies. In Spectroscopy of Biological Molecules: Modern Trends, 495–6. Dordrecht: Springer Science.
   Google Scholar
• Aytekin, A., and A. O. Acikgoz. 2008. Hormone and microorganism treatments in the cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) plants. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) 13 (5):1135–1147. doi: 10.3390/molecules13051135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baba, S. A., A. H. Malik, Z. A. Wani, T. Mohiuddin, Z. Shah, N. Abbas, and N. Ashraf. 2015a. Phytochemical analysis and antioxidant activity of different tissue types of Crocus sativus and oxidative stress alleviating potential of saffron extract in plants, bacteria, and yeast. South African Journal of Botany 99:80–7. doi: 10.1016/j.sajb.2015.03.194.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baba, S. A., T. Mohiuddin, S. Basu, M. K. Swarnkar, A. H. Malik, Z. A. Wani, N. Abbas, A. K. Singh, and N. Ashraf. 2015b. Comprehensive transcriptome analysis of Crocus sativus for discovery and expression of genes involved in apocarotenoid biosynthesis. BMC Genomics 16:698. doi: 10.1186/s12864-015-1894-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basti, A. A., E. Moshiri, A. A. Noorbala, A. H. Jamshidi, S. H. Abbasi, and S. Akhondzadeh. 2007. Comparison of petal of Crocus sativus L. and fluoxetine in the treatment of depressed outpatients: A pilot double-blind randomized trial. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 31 (2):439–42. doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.11.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhandari, P. R. 2015. Crocus sativus L. (saffron) for cancer chemoprevention: A mini review. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine 5 (2):81–7. doi: 10.1016/j.jtcme.2014.10.009.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bodeker, G., C. K. Ong, C. Grundy, G. Burford, K. Shein, et al. 2005. WHO global atlas of traditional, complementary and alternative medicine. Kobe, Japan: WHO Centre for Health Development.
   Google Scholar
• Bolandi, M., and H. Ghoddusi. 2006. Flavour and colour changes during processing and storage of saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Developments in Food Science 43 :323-326.
   Google Scholar
• Bononi, M., P. Milella, and F. Tateo. 2015. Gas chromatography of safranal as preferable method for the commercial grading of saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Food Chemistry 176:17–21. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.12.047.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caballero-Ortega, H., R. Pereda-Miranda, and F. I. Abdullaev. 2007. HPLC quantification of major active components from 11 different saffron (Crocus sativus L.) sources. Food Chemistry 100 (3):1126–31. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.11.020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caiola, M. G., and A. Canini. 2010. Looking for saffron’s (Crocus sativus L.) Parents. In: Husaini AM (Ed) Saffron. Functional Plant Science and Biotechnology 4 (Special Issue 2):1–14.
   Google Scholar
• Carmona, M., A. M. Sánchez, F. Ferreres, A. Zalacain, F. Tomás-Barberán, and G. L. Alonso. 2007. Identification of the flavonoid fraction in saffron spice by LC/DAD/MS/MS: Comparative study of samples from different geographical origins. Food Chemistry 100 (2):445–50. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.09.065.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carmona, M., A. Zalacain, M. R. Salinas, and G. L. Alonso. 2006a. Generation of saffron volatiles by thermal carotenoid degradation. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54 (18):6825–34. doi: 10.1021/jf0612326.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carmona, M., A. Zalacain, A. M. Sánchez, J. L. Novella, and G. L. Alonso. 2006b. Crocetin esters, picrocrocin and its related compounds present in Crocus sativus stigmas and Gardenia jasminoides fruits. Tentative identification of seven new compounds by LC-ESI-MS. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54 (3):973–9. doi: 10.1021/jf052297w.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Çavuşoğlu, A., E. İ. Erkel, and M. Sülüşoğlu. 2009. Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) studies with two mother corm dimensions on yield and harvest period under greenhouse condition. American-Eurasian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 3:126–9.
   Google Scholar
• Christodoulou, E., N. P. Kadoglou, N. Kostomitsopoulos, and G. Valsami. 2015. Saffron: A natural product with potential pharmaceutical applications. The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 67 (12):1634–49. doi: 10.1111/jphp.12456.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D’Archivio, A. A., and M. A. Maggi. 2017. Geographical identification of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) by linear discriminant analysis applied to the UV-visible spectra of aqueous extracts. Food Chemistry 219:408–13. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.09.169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dagher, P. C. 2000. Modeling ischemia in vitro: Selective depletion of adenine and guanine nucleotide pools. American Journal of Physiology. Cell Physiology 279 (4):C1270–C1277. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.2000.279.4.C1270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Del Campo, C. P., T. Garde-Cerdán, A. M. Sánchez, L. Maggi, M. Carmona, and G. L. Alonso. 2009. Determination of free amino acids and ammonium ion in saffron (Crocus sativus L.) from different geographical origins. Food Chemistry 114 (4):1542–8. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.11.034.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Del-Angel, D., N. Martínez, M. Cruz, E. Urrutia, L. Riverón-Negrete, and F. Abdullaev. 2007. Saffron extract ameliorates oxidative damage and mitochondrial dysfunction in the rat brain. II International Symposium on Saffron Biology and Acta Horticulturae 739 (739):359–66. doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2007.739.47.
   Google Scholar
• Deslauriers, A. M., A. Afkhami-Goli, A. M. Paul, R. K. Bhat, S. Acharjee, K. K. Ellestad, F. Noorbakhsh, M. Michalak, and C. Power. 2011. Neuroinflammation and endoplasmic reticulum stress are coregulated by crocin to prevent demyelination and neurodegeneration. The Journal of Immunology 187 (9):4788–99. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1004111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebrahim‐Habibi, M. B., M. Amininasab, A. Ebrahim‐Habibi, M. Sabbaghian, and M. Nemat‐Gorgani. 2010. Fibrillation of alpha-lactalbumin: Effect of crocin and safranal, two natural small molecules from Crocus sativus. Biopolymers 93 (10):854–65. doi: 10.1002/bip.21477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdman, Jr., J. W., T. L. Bierer, and E. T. Gugger. 1993. Absorption and transport of carotenoids. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 691:76–85. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1993.tb26159.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feizy, J., and N. Reyhani. 2016. Gas chromatographic determination of phytosterols and fatty acids profile in saffron petals. Canadian Chemical Transactions 4:389–97.
   Google Scholar
• García-Rodríguez, M. V., H. López-Córcoles, G. L. Alonso, C. S. Pappas, M. G. Polissiou, and P. A. Tarantilis. 2017. Comparative evaluation of an ISO 3632 method and an HPLC-DAD method for safranal quantity determination in saffron. Food Chemistry 221:838–43. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.11.089.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgiadou, G., V. Grivas, P. A. Tarantilis, and N. Pitsikas. 2014. Crocins, the active constituents of Crocus Sativus L., counteracted ketamine-induced behavioural deficits in rats. Psychopharmacology 231 (4):717–26. doi: 10.1007/s00213-013-3293-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geromichalos, G. D., F. N. Lamari, M. A. Papandreou, D. T. Trafalis, M. Margarity, A. Papageorgiou, and Z. Sinakos. 2012. Saffron as a source of novel acetylcholinesterase inhibitors: Molecular docking and in vitro enzymatic studies. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 60 (24):6131–8. doi: 10.1021/jf300589c.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghadrdoost, B., A. A. Vafaei, A. Rashidy-Pour, R. Hajisoltani, A. R. Bandegi, F. Motamedi, S. Haghighi, H. R. Sameni, and S. Pahlvan. 2011. Protective effects of saffron extract and its active constituent crocin against oxidative stress and spatial learning and memory deficits induced by chronic stress in rats. European Journal of Pharmacology 667 (1–3):222–9. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2011.05.012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghasemi, T., K. Abnous, F. Vahdati, S. Mehri, B. Razavi, and H. Hosseinzadeh. 2015. Antidepressant effect of Crocus sativus aqueous extract and its effect on CREB, BDNF, and VGF transcript and protein levels in rat hippocampus. Drug Research 65 (7):337–43. doi: 10.1055/s-0034-1371876.
   Google Scholar
• Giorgi, A., D. Pentimalli, L. Giupponi, and S. Panseri. 2017. Quality traits of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) produced in the Italian Alps. Open Agriculture 2 (1):52–7. doi: 10.1515/opag-2017-0005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gismondi, A., M. Serio, L. Canuti, and A. Canini. 2012. Biochemical, antioxidant and antineoplastic properties of Italian saffron (Crocus sativus L.). American Journal of Plant Sciences 03 (11):1573–80. doi: 10.4236/ajps.2012.311190.
   Google Scholar
• Gohari, A. R., S. Saeidnia, and M. K. Mahmoodabadi. 2013. An overview on saffron, phytochemicals, and medicinal properties. Pharmacognosy Reviews 7 (1):61. doi: 10.4103/0973-7847.112850.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gracia, L., C. Perez-Vidal, and C. Gracia-López. 2009. Automated cutting system to obtain the stigmas of the saffron flower. Biosystems Engineering 104 (1):8–17. doi: 10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2009.06.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Granado, F., B. Olmedilla, C. Herrero, B. Perez-Sacristan, I. Blanco, and S. Blazquez. 2006. Bioavailability of carotenoids and tocopherols from broccoli: In vivo and in vitro assessment. Experimental Biology and Medicine 231 (11):1733–8. doi: 10.1177/153537020623101110.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregory, M. J., R. C. Menary, and N. W. Davies. 2005. Effect of drying temperature and air flow on the production and retention of secondary metabolites in saffron. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 53 (15):5969–75. doi: 10.1021/jf047989j.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grosso, C. 2016. Herbal medicine in depression: Traditional medicine to innovative drug delivery. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Habibi, M., and B. Bagheri. 1989. Agriculture processing and chemicals and standards of saffron. Iran science research center. Khorasan. Iran.
   Google Scholar
• Hagh-Nazari, S., and N. Keifi. 2007. Saffron and various fraud manners in its production and trades. Acta Horticulturae 739:411–6. doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2007.739.54.
   Google Scholar
• Hashemi, P., and F. B. Erim. 2016. Analysis of vitamin B2 in saffron stigmas (Crocus sativus L) by capillary electrophoresis coupled with laser-induced fluorescence detector. Food Analytical Methods 9 (8):2395–9. doi: 10.1007/s12161-016-0430-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hausenblas, H. A., D. Saha, P. J. Dubyak, and S. D. Anton. 2013. Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and major depressive disorder: A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Journal of Integrative Medicine 11 (6):377–83. doi: 10.3736/jintegrmed2013056.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• He, W., J. Zhang, W. Xue, J. Hu, D. Wu, and N. Chen. 2009. Comparison of the action of isolichenin and methanol extract of saffron on long-term potentiation in hippocampal dentate gyrus in vivo. Yao Xue Xue Bao = Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica 44 (8):858–62.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heaney, R. P. 2001. Factors influencing the measurement of bioavailability, taking calcium as a model. The Journal of Nutrition 131 (4 Suppl):1344S–8S. doi: 10.1093/jn/131.4.1344S.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hill, T. 2004. The contemporary encyclopedia of herbs & spices: Seasonings for the global kitchen. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Hooshmandi, Z., A. H. Rohani, A. Eidi, Z. Fatahi, L. Golmanesh, and H. Sahraei. 2011. Reduction of metabolic and behavioral signs of acute stress in male Wistar rats by saffron water extract and its constituent safranal. Pharmaceutical Biology 49 (9):947–54. doi: 10.3109/13880209.2011.558103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosein Farzaei, M., R. Bahramsoltani, R. Rahimi, F. Abbasabadi, and M. Abdollahi. 2016. A systematic review of plant-derived natural compounds for anxiety disorders. Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry 16 (17):1924–42. doi: 10.2174/1568026616666160204121039.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosseini, A., B. M. Razavi, and H. Hosseinzadeh. 2018. Saffron (Crocus sativus) petal as a new pharmacological target: A review. Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences 21:1091–9..
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosseinzadeh, H., and J. Ghenaati. 2006. Evaluation of the antitussive effect of stigma and petals of saffron (Crocus sativus) and its components, safranal and crocin in guinea pigs. Fitoterapia 77 (6):446–8. doi: 10.1016/j.fitote.2006.04.012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosseinzadeh, H., and V. Khosravan. 2002. Anticonvulsant effects of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Crocus sativus L stigmas in mice. Archives of Iranian Medicine 5:44–7.
   Google Scholar
• Hosseinzadeh, H., H. R. Sadeghnia, F. A. Ghaeni, V. S. Motamedshariaty, and S. A. Mohajeri. 2012. Effects of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and its active constituent, crocin, on recognition and spatial memory after chronic cerebral hypoperfusion in rats. Phytotherapy Research: PTR 26 (3):381–6. doi: 10.1002/ptr.3566.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosseinzadeh, H., S. S. Shakib, A. K. Sameni, and E. Taghiabadi. 2013. Acute and subacute toxicity of safranal, a constituent of saffron, in mice and rats. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research: IJPR 12 (1):93–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosseinzadeh, H., M. V. Shariaty, A. Khadem-Sameni, and M. Vahabzadeh. 2010. Acute and sub-acute toxicity of crocin, a constituent of Crocus sativus L (saffron), in mice and rats. Pharmacologyonline 2:943–51.
   Google Scholar
• Hosseinzadeh, H., and F. Talebzadeh. 2005. Anticonvulsant evaluation of safranal and crocin from Crocus sativus in mice. Fitoterapia 76 (7–8):722–4. doi: 10.1016/j.fitote.2005.07.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosseinzadeh, H., T. Ziaee, and A. Sadeghi. 2008. The effect of saffron, Crocus sativus stigma, extract and its constituents, safranal and crocin on sexual behaviors in normal male rats. Phytomedicine: International Journal of Phytotherapy and Phytopharmacology 15 (6–7):491–5. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2007.09.020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosseinzadeh, H., V. Motamedshariaty, and F. Hadizadeh. 2007. Antidepressant effect of kaempferol, a constituent of saffron (Crocus sativus) petal, mice and rats. Pharmacologyonline 2:367–70.
   Google Scholar
• Husaini, A. M., S. A. Wani, P. Sofi, A. G. Rather, G. A. Parray, A. B. Shikari, and J. I. Mir. 2009. Bioinformatics for saffron (Crocus sativus L.) improvement. Communications in Biometry & Crop Science 4:3–8.
   Google Scholar
• Jadouali, S. M., H. Atifi, R. Mamouni, K. Majourhat, Z. Bouzoubaâ, A. Laknifli, and A. Faouzi. 2019. Chemical characterization and antioxidant compounds of flower parts of Moroccan Crocus sativus L. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences 18 (4):476–80. doi: 10.1016/j.jssas.2018.03.007.
   Google Scholar
• Jafarnia, N., Z. Ghorbani, M. Nokhostin, A. Manayi, S. Nourimajd, and S. R. Jahromi. 2017. Effect of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) as an add-on therapy to sertraline in mild to moderate generalized anxiety disorder: A double blind randomized controlled trial. Archives of Neuroscience 4 (4):e14332. doi: 10.5812/archneurosci.14332.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jalali-Heravi, M., H. Parastar, and H. Ebrahimi-Najafabadi. 2009. Characterization of volatile components of Iranian saffron using factorial-based response surface modeling of ultrasonic extraction combined with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. Journal of Chromatography. A 1216 (33):6088–97. doi: 10.1016/j.chroma.2009.06.067.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Javadi, B., A. Sahebkar, and S. A. Emami. 2013. A survey on saffron in major Islamic traditional medicine books. Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences 16 (1):1–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• José Bagur, M., G. L. Alonso Salinas, A. M. Jiménez-Monreal, S. Chaouqi, S. Llorens, M. Martínez-Tomé, and G. L. Alonso. 2017. Saffron: An old medicinal plant and a potential novel functional food. Molecules 23 (1):30. doi: 10.3390/molecules23010030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanakis, C. D., D. J. Daferera, P. A. Tarantilis, and M. G. Polissiou. 2004. Qualitative determination of volatile compounds and quantitative evaluation of safranal and 4-hydroxy-2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde (HTCC) in Greek saffron. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52 (14):4515–21. doi: 10.1021/jf049808j.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanakis, C. D., P. A. Tarantilis, H. A. Tajmir-Riahi, and M. G. Polissiou. 2007. Crocetin, dimethylcrocetin, and safranal bind human serum albumin: Stability and antioxidative properties. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 55 (3):970–7. doi: 10.1021/jf062638l.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karimi, E., E. Oskoueian, R. Hendra, and H. Z. Jaafar. 2010. Evaluation of Crocus sativus L. stigma phenolic and flavonoid compounds and its antioxidant activity. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) 15 (9):6244–56. doi: 10.3390/molecules15096244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karimi, G., N. Taiebi, H. Hosseinzadeh, and F. Shirzad. 2004. Evaluation of subacute toxicity of aqueous extract of Crocus sativus L. stigma and petal in rats. Journal of Medicinal Plants 4:29–35.
   Google Scholar
• Karmi, G. R., H. Hosseinzadeh, and P. P. Khakegh. 2001. Study of antidepressant effect of aqueous and ethanolic extract of Crocus sativus in mice. Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences 4:11–5.
   Google Scholar
• Kell, G., A. Rao, G. Beccaria, P. Clayton, A. M. Inarejos-García, and M. Prodanov. 2017. Saffron® a novel saffron extract (Crocus sativus L.) improves mood in healthy adults over 4 weeks in a double-blind, parallel, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Complementary Therapies in Medicine 33:58–64. doi: 10.1016/j.ctim.2017.06.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy, Jr., G. L., R. L. Ferenz, and B. A. Burgess. 1986. Estimation of acute oral toxicity in rats by determination of the approximate lethal dose rather than the LD50. Journal of Applied Toxicology: JAT 6 (3):145–8. doi: 10.1002/jat.2550060302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khalili, M., and F. Hamzeh. 2010. Effects of active constituents of Crocus sativus L., crocin on streptozocin-induced model of sporadic Alzheimer’s disease in male rats. Iranian Biomedical Journal 14 (1–2):59–65.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Khare, C. 2007. Indian medicinal plants. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Khare, P., S. Chaudhary, L. Singh, G. Yadav, and S. Verma. 2014. Evaluation of nootropic activity of Cressa cretica in scopolamine-induced memory impairment in mice. International Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology 2 (2):24–9. doi: 10.14419/ijpt.v2i2.2004.
   Google Scholar
• Khazdair, M. R., M. H. Boskabady, M. Hosseini, R. Rezaee, and A. M. Tsatsakis. 2015. The effects of Crocus sativus (saffron) and its constituents on nervous system: A review. Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine 5 (5):376–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kyriakoudi, A., A. Chrysanthou, F. Mantzouridou, and M. Z. Tsimidou. 2012. Revisiting extraction of bioactive apocarotenoids from Crocus sativus L. dry stigmas (saffron). Analytica Chimica Acta 755:77–85. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2012.10.016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Labak, M., T. Foniok, D. Kirk, D. Rushforth, B. Tomanek, A. Jasiński, and P. Grieb. 2010. Metabolic changes in rat brain following intracerebroventricular injections of streptozotocin: A model of sporadic Alzheimer’s disease. In Brain Edema XIV, 177–81. Vienna: Springer-Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Lage, M., and C. L. Cantrell. 2009. Quantification of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) metabolites crocins, picrocrocin and safranal for quality determination of the spice grown under different environmental Moroccan conditions. Scientia Horticulturae 121 (3):366–73. doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2009.02.017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lautenschläger, M., J. Sendker, S. Hüwel, H. Galla, S. Brandt, M. Düfer, K. Riehemann, and A. Hensel. 2015. Intestinal formation of trans-crocetin from saffron extract (Crocus sativus L.) and in vitro permeation through intestinal and blood brain barrier. Phytomedicine: International Journal of Phytotherapy and Phytopharmacology 22 (1):36–44. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2014.10.009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, C. Y., E. J. Lee, and T. S. Wu. 2004. Antityrosinase principles and constituents of the petals of Crocus sativus. Journal of Natural Products 67 (3):437–40. doi: 10.1021/np0302854.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, C. Y., and T. S. Wu. 2002. Constituents of the stigmas of Crocus sativus and their tyrosinase inhibitory activity. Journal of Natural Products 65 (10):1452–6. doi: 10.1021/np020188v.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim, T. K. 2012. Edible medicinal and non-medicinal plants. Vol. 1. Dordrecht: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Llorens, S., A. Mancini, J. Serrano-Díaz, A. M. D’Alessandro, E. Nava, G. L. Alonso, and M. Carmona. 2015. Effects of crocetin esters and crocetin from Crocus sativus L. on aortic contractility in rat genetic hypertension. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) 20 (9):17570–84. doi: 10.3390/molecules200917570.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopresti, A. L., and P. D. Drummond. 2014. Saffron (Crocus sativus) for depression: A systematic review of clinical studies and examination of underlying antidepressant mechanisms of action. Human Psychopharmacology 29 (6):517–27. doi: 10.1002/hup.2434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maggi, L., M. Carmona, A. Zalacain, C. D. Kanakis, E. Anastasaki, P. A. Tarantilis, M. G. Polissiou, and G. L. Alonso. 2010. Changes in saffron volatile profile according to its storage time. Food Research International 43 (5):1329–34. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2010.03.025.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melnyk, J. P., S. Wang, and M. F. Marcone. 2010. Chemical and biological properties of the world’s most expensive spice: Saffron. Food Research International 43 (8):1981–9. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2010.07.033.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mobarakeh, J. I., N. Fakhraei, Z. A. Sadr, A. Hamidipour, E. Mostafavi, R. H. Hosseini, and S. Sardari. 2013. Effect of aqueous, ethanolic and acetonitrile Crocus sativus L. extracts on stress biomarkers in male rats. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 7:3269–79.
   Google Scholar
• Modaghegh, M. H., M. Shahabian, H. A. Esmaeili, O. Rajbai, and H. Hosseinzadeh. 2008. Safety evaluation of saffron (Crocus sativus) tablets in healthy volunteers. Phytomedicine: International Journal of Phytotherapy and Phytopharmacology 15 (12):1032–7. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2008.06.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohamadpour, A. H., Z. Ayati, M. R. Parizadeh, O. Rajbai, and H. Hosseinzadeh. 2013. Safety evaluation of crocin (a constituent of saffron) tablets in healthy volunteers. Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences 16 (1):39–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mokhtari-Zaer, A., M. R. Khazdair, and M. H. Boskabady. 2015. Smooth muscle relaxant activity of Crocus sativus (saffron) and its constituents: Possible mechanisms. Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine 5 (5):365–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molina, R., M. Valero, Y. Navarro, J. Guardiola, and A. Garcia-Luis. 2005. Temperature effects on flower formation in saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Scientia Horticulturae 103 (3):361–79. doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2004.06.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montoro, P., M. Maldini, L. Luciani, C. I. Tuberoso, F. Congiu, and C. Pizza. 2012. Radical scavenging activity and LC-MS metabolic profiling of petals, stamens, and flowers of Crocus sativus L. Journal of Food Science 77 (8):C893–C900. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2012.02803.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moosavi, S. M., M. Ahmadi, M. Amini, and B. Vazirzadeh. 2014. The effects of 40 and 80 mg hydro-alcoholic extract of Crocus sativus in the treatment of mild to moderate depression. Journal of Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences 24:48–53.
   Google Scholar
• Moraga, Á. R., A. T. Mozos, O. Ahrazem, and L. Gómez-Gómez. 2009a. Cloning and characterization of a glucosyltransferase from Crocus sativus stigmas involved in flavonoid glucosylation. BMC Plant Biology 9 (1):109. doi: 10.1186/1471-2229-9-109.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Moraga, Á. R., J. L. Rambla, O. Ahrazem, A. Granell, and L. Gómez-Gómez. 2009b. Metabolite and target transcript analyses during Crocus sativus stigma development. Phytochemistry 70 (8):1009–16. doi: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2009.04.022.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moshiri, E., A. A. Basti, A. A. Noorbala, A. H. Jamshidi, S. H. Abbasi, and S. Akhondzadeh. 2006. Crocus sativus L.(petal) in the treatment of mild-to-moderate depression: A double-blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial. Phytomedicine 13 (9–10):607–11. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2006.08.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mounira, L., M. Bernardo, C. P. Luigi, F. Guido, G. Fatima, B. Khadija, Z. Abdelmjid, and P. Luisa. 2015. Phytochemical composition of Moroccan saffron accessions by headspace solid-phase-microextraction. American Journal of Essential Oils and Natural Products 2:1–7.
   Google Scholar
• Mzabri, I., M. Addi, and A. Berrichi. 2019. Traditional and modern uses of saffron (Crocus sativus). Cosmetics 6:63. doi: 10.3390/cosmetics6040063.
   Google Scholar
• Naghibi, S. M., M. Hosseini, F. Khani, M. Rahimi, F. Vafaee, H. Rakhshandeh, and A. Aghaie. 2012. Effect of aqueous extract of Crocus sativus L. on morphine-induced memory impairment. Advances in Pharmacological Sciences 2012:1–7. doi: 10.1155/2012/494367.
   Google Scholar
• Naghizadeh, B., M. Mansouri, B. Ghorbanzadeh, Y. Farbood, and A. Sarkaki. 2013. Protective effects of oral crocin against intracerebroventricular streptozotocin-induced spatial memory deficit and oxidative stress in rats. Phytomedicine: International Journal of Phytotherapy and Phytopharmacology 20 (6):537–42. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2012.12.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Negbi, M. 1999. Saffron cultivation: Past, present and future prospects. In Saffron Crocus sativus L., 1–17. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Noorbala, A., S. Akhondzadeh, N. Tahmacebi-Pour, and A. Jamshidi. 2005. Hydro-alcoholic extract of Crocus sativus L. versus fluoxetine in the treatment of mild to moderate depression: A double-blind, randomized pilot trial. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 97 (2):281–4. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2004.11.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohba, T., M. Ishisaka, S. Tsujii, K. Tsuruma, M. Shimazawa, K. Kubo, N. Umigai, T. Iwawaki, and H. Hara. 2016. Crocetin protects ultraviolet A-induced oxidative stress and cell death in skin in vitro and in vivo. European Journal of Pharmacology 789:244–53. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2016.07.036.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papandreou, M. A., C. D. Kanakis, M. G. Polissiou, S. Efthimiopoulos, P. Cordopatis, M. Margarity, and F. N. Lamari. 2006. Inhibitory activity on amyloid-beta aggregation and antioxidant properties of Crocus sativus stigmas extract and its crocin constituents. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54 (23):8762–8. doi: 10.1021/jf061932a.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker, R. S. 1996. Absorption, metabolism, and transport of carotenoids. FASEB Journal: Official Publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology 10 (5):542–51. doi: 10.1096/fasebj.10.5.8621054.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pathan, S. A., S. Alam, G. K. Jain, S. M. Zaidi, S. Akhter, D. Vohora, R. K. Khar, and F. J. Ahmad. 2010. Quantitative analysis of safranal in saffron extract and nanoparticle formulation by a validated high-performance thin-layer chromatographic method. Phytochemical Analysis: PCA 21 (3):219–23. doi: 10.1002/pca.1184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfander, H., and H. Schurtenberger. 1982. Biosynthesis of C20-carotenoids in Crocus sativus. Phytochemistry 21 (5):1039–42. doi: 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)82412-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitsikas, N. 2016. Constituents of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) as potential candidates for the treatment of anxiety disorders and schizophrenia. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) 21 (3):303. doi: 10.3390/molecules21030303.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitsikas, N., A. Boultadakis, G. Georgiadou, P. Tarantilis, and N. Sakellaridis. 2008. Effects of the active constituents of Crocus sativus L., crocins, in an animal model of anxiety. Phytomedicine 15 (12):1135–9. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2008.06.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitsikas, N., S. Zisopoulou, P. A. Tarantilis, C. D. Kanakis, M. G. Polissiou, and N. Sakellaridis. 2007. Effects of the active constituents of Crocus sativus L., crocins on recognition and spatial rats’ memory. Behavioural Brain Research 183 (2):141–6. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2007.06.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Purushothuman, S., C. Nandasena, C. L. Peoples, N. E. Massri, D. M. Johnstone, J. Mitrofanis, and J. Stone. 2013. Saffron pre-treatment offers neuroprotection to Nigral and retinal dopaminergic cells of MPTP-Treated mice. Journal of Parkinson’s Disease 3 (1):77–83. doi: 10.3233/JPD-130173.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rahimi, M. 2015. Chemical and medicinal properties of saffron. Bulletin of Environment, Pharmacology and Life Sciences 4:69–81.
   Google Scholar
• Rahmani, A. H., A. A. Khan, and Y. H. Aldebasi. 2017. Saffron (Crocus sativus) and its active ingredients: Role in the prevention and treatment of disease. Pharmacognosy Journal 9 (6):873–9. doi: 10.5530/pj.2017.6.137.
   Google Scholar
• Ramadan, A., G. Soliman, S. S. Mahmoud, S. M. Nofal, and R. F. Abdel-Rahman. 2012. Evaluation of the safety and antioxidant activities of Crocus sativus and Propolis ethanolic extracts. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society 16 (1):13–21. doi: 10.1016/j.jscs.2010.10.012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Razak, S. I. A., M. S. Anwar Hamzah, F. C. Yee, M. R. A. Kadir, and N. H. M. Nayan. 2017. A review on medicinal properties of saffron toward major diseases. Journal of Herbs, Spices & Medicinal Plants 23 (2):98–116. doi: 10.1080/10496475.2016.1272522.
   Google Scholar
• Rios, J., M. Recio, R. Giner, and S. Manez. 1996. An update review of saffron and its active constituents. Phytotherapy Research 10 (3):189–93. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1573(199605)10:3<189::AID-PTR754>3.0.CO;2-C.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saleem, S., M. Ahmad, A. S. Ahmad, S. Yousuf, M. A. Ansari, M. B. Khan, T. Ishrat, and F. Islam. 2006. Effect of Saffron (Crocus sativus) on neurobehavioral and neurochemical changes in cerebral ischemia in rats. Journal of Medicinal Food 9 (2):246–53. doi: 10.1089/jmf.2006.9.246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samarghandian, S., and A. Borji. 2014. Anticarcinogenic effect of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and its ingredients. Pharmacognosy Research 6 (2):99–107. doi: 10.4103/0974-8490.128963.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sánchez-Vioque, R., O. Santana-Méridas, M. Polissiou, J. Vioque, K. Astraka, M. Alaiz, D. Herraiz-Peñalver, P. A. Tarantilis, and J. Girón-Calle. 2016. Polyphenol composition and in vitro antiproliferative effect of corm, tepal and leaf from Crocus sativus L. on human colon adenocarcinoma cells (Caco-2). Journal of Functional Foods 24:18–25. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2016.03.032.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saura-Calixto, F., J. Serrano, and I. Goñi. 2007. Intake and bioaccessibility of total polyphenols in a whole diet. Food Chemistry 101 (2):492–501. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.02.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serrano-Díaz, J., A. M. Sánchez, M. Martínez-Tomé, P. Winterhalter, and G. L. Alonso. 2013. A contribution to nutritional studies on Crocus sativus flowers and their value as food. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 31 (1):101–8. doi: 10.1016/j.jfca.2013.03.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shahi, T., E. Assadpour, and S. M. Jafari. 2016. Main chemical compounds and pharmacological activities of stigmas and tepals of ‘red gold’; saffron. Trends in Food Science & Technology 58:69–78. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2016.10.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shati, A., F. Elsaid, and E. Hafez. 2011. Biochemical and molecular aspects of aluminium chloride-induced neurotoxicity in mice and the protective role of Crocus sativus L. extraction and honey syrup. Neuroscience 175:66–74. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.11.043.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singla, R. K., and G. Bhat. 2011. Crocin: An overview. Indo Global Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 1:281–6.
   Google Scholar
• Soeda, S., T. Ochiai, L. Paopong, H. Tanaka, Y. Shoyama, and H. Shimeno. 2001. Crocin suppresses tumor necrosis factor-α-induced cell death of neuronally differentiated PC-12 cells. Life Sciences 69 (24):2887–98. doi: 10.1016/S0024-3205(01)01357-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Straubinger, M., M. Jezussek, R. Waibel, and P. Winterhalter. 1997. Two kaempferol sophorosides from Crocus sativus. Natural Product Letters 10 (3):213–6. doi: 10.1080/10575639708041197.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamaddonfard, E., A. A. Farshid, E. Ahmadian, and A. Hamidhoseyni. 2013. Crocin enhanced functional recovery after sciatic nerve crush injury in rats. Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences 16 (1):83–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarantilis, P. A., A. Beljebbar, M. Manfait, and M. Polissiou. 1998. FT-IR, FT-Raman spectroscopic study of carotenoids from saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and some derivatives. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy 54 (4):651–7. doi: 10.1016/S1386-1425(98)00024-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarantilis, P. A., and M. G. Polissiou. 1997. Isolation and identification of the aroma components from saffron (Crocus sativus). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 45 (2):459–62. doi: 10.1021/jf960105e.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Termentzi, A., and E. Kokkalou. 2008. LC-DAD-MS (ESI+) analysis and antioxidant capacity of Crocus sativus petal extracts. Planta Medica 74 (5):573–81. doi: 10.1055/s-2008-1074498.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong, Y., X. Zhu, Y. Yan, R. Liu, F. Gong, L. Zhang, J. Hu, L. Fang, R. Wang, and P. Wang. 2015. The influence of different drying methods on constituents and antioxidant activity of saffron from China. International Journal of Analytical Chemistry 2015:953164. doi: 10.1155/2015/953164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tóth, B., P. Hegyi, T. Lantos, Z. Szakács, B. Kerémi, G. Varga, J. Tenk, E. Pétervári, M. Balaskó, Z. Rumbus, et al. 2019. The efficacy of saffron in the treatment of mild to moderate depression: A meta-analysis. Planta Medica 85 (1):24–31., doi: 10.1055/a-0660-9565.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tung, N. H., and Y. Shoyama. 2013. New minor glycoside components from saffron. Journal of Natural Medicines 67 (3):672–6. doi: 10.1007/s11418-012-0721-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• USDA. 2013. USDA National nutrient database for standard reference, release 26. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page. The United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD, USA.
   Google Scholar
• Uttara, B., A. V. Singh, P. Zamboni, and R. Mahajan. 2009. Oxidative stress and neurodegenerative diseases: A review of upstream and downstream antioxidant therapeutic options. Current Neuropharmacology 7 (1):65–74. doi: 10.2174/157015909787602823.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vakili, A., M. R. Einali, and A. R. Bandegi. 2014. Protective effect of crocin against cerebral ischemia in a dose-dependent manner in a rat model of ischemic stroke. Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases 23 (1):106–13. doi: 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2012.10.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., T. Han, Y. Zhu, C. J. Zheng, Q. L. Ming, K. Rahman, and L. P. Qin. 2010. Antidepressant properties of bioactive fractions from the extract of Crocus sativus L. Journal of Natural Medicines 64 (1):24–30. doi: 10.1007/s11418-009-0360-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., J. Sun, C. Liu, and C. Fang. 2014. Protective effects of crocetin pretreatment on myocardial injury in an ischemia/reperfusion rat model. European Journal of Pharmacology 741:290–6. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.07.052.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xi, L., Z. Qian, G. Xu, S. Zheng, S. Sun, N. Wen, L. Sheng, Y. Shi, and Y. Zhang. 2007. Beneficial impact of crocetin, a carotenoid from saffron, on insulin sensitivity in fructose-fed rats. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 18 (1):64–72. doi: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2006.03.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xie, G., J. Zhou, and X. Yan. 2011. Encyclopedia of traditional Chinese medicines: Molecular structures, pharmacological activities. Natural Sources and Applications; Vol. 2 DG. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Xu, G. L., G. Li, H. P. Ma, H. Zhong, F. Liu, and G. Z. Ao. 2009. Preventive effect of crocin in inflamed animals and in LPS-challenged RAW 264.7 cells. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 57 (18):8325–30. doi: 10.1021/jf901752f.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshino, F., A. Yoshida, N. Umigai, K. Kubo, and C. L. Masaichi. 2011. Crocetin reduces the oxidative stress induced reactive oxygen species in the stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRSPs) brain. Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition 49 (3):182–7. doi: 10.3164/jcbn.11-01.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, G. F., Y. Zhang, and G. Zhao. 2015. Crocin protects PC12 cells against MPP(+)-induced injury through inhibition of mitochondrial dysfunction and ER stress. Neurochemistry International 89:101–10. doi: 10.1016/j.neuint.2015.07.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Y., F. Fei, L. Zhen, X. Zhu, J. Wang, S. Li, J. Geng, R. Sun, X. Yu, T. Chen, et al. 2017. Sensitive analysis and simultaneous assessment of pharmacokinetic properties of crocin and crocetin after oral administration in rats. Journal of Chromatography. B, Analytical Technologies in the Biomedical and Life Sciences 1044–1045:1–7. doi: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2016.12.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Y., Y. Shoyama, M. Sugiura, and H. Saito. 1994. Effects of Crocus sativus L. on the ethanol-induced impairment of passive avoidance performances in mice. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 17 (2):217–21. doi: 10.1248/bpb.17.217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng, C. J., L. Li, W. H. Ma, T. Han, and L. P. Qin. 2011. Chemical constituents and bioactivities of the liposoluble fraction from different medicinal parts of Crocus sativus. Pharmaceutical Biology 49 (7):756–63. doi: 10.3109/13880209.2010.547206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng, Y. Q., J. X. Liu, J. N. Wang, and L. Xu. 2007. Effects of crocin on reperfusion-induced oxidative/nitrative injury to cerebral microvessels after global cerebral ischemia. Brain Research 1138:86–94. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.12.064.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar