The continuum of disrupted metabolic tempo, mitochondrial substrate congestion, and metabolic gridlock toward the development of non-communicable diseases

References

• Abarca-Gómez, L., Z. A. Abdeen, and Z. A. Hamid. 2017. Worldwide trends in body-mass index, underweight, overweight, and obesity from 1975 to 2016: A pooled analysis of 2416 population-based measurement studies in 1289 million children, adolescents, and adults. The Lancet 390 (10113):2627–42. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32129-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agustí, A., M. P. García-Pardo, I. López-Almela, I. Campillo, M. Maes, M. Romaní-Pérez, and Y. Sanz. 2018. Interplay between the gut-brain axis, obesity and cognitive function. Frontiers in Neuroscience 12:155. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Assmann, N., and D. K. Finlay. 2016. Metabolic regulation of immune responses: Therapeutic opportunities. The Journal of Clinical Investigation 126 (6):2031–9. doi: 10.1172/jci83005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asterholm, I. W., and P. E. Scherer. 2010. Enhanced metabolic flexibility associated with elevated adiponectin levels. The American Journal of Pathology 176 (3):1364–76. doi: 10.2353/ajpath.2010.090647.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aucouturier, J., P. Duché, and B. W. Timmons. 2011. Metabolic flexibility and obesity in children and youth. Obesity Reviews: An Official Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 12 (5):e44–e53. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2010.00812.x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bahceci, M., D. Gokalp, S. Bahceci, A. Tuzcu, S. Atmaca, and S. Arikan. 2007. The correlation between adiposity and adiponectin, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-6 and high sensitivity C-reactive protein levels. Is adipocyte size associated with inflammation in adults? Journal of Endocrinological Investigation 30 (3):210–4. doi: 10.1007/BF03347427.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bjørklund, G., T. Tippairote, M. Dadar, F. Lizcano, J. Aaseth, and O. Borisova. 2020. The roles of dietary, nutritional, and lifestyle interventions in adipose tissue adaptation and obesity. Current Medicinal Chemistry. 27:1–19. doi: 10.2174/0929867327666200505090449.
   Google Scholar
• Bolla, A. M., A. Caretto, A. Laurenzi, M. Scavini, and L. Piemonti. 2019. Low-carb and ketogenic diets in type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Nutrients 11 (5):962.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyle, K. E., J. E. Friedman, R. C. Janssen, C. Underkofler, J. A. Houmard, and N. Rasouli. 2016. Metabolic inflexibility with obesity and the effects of fenofibrate on skeletal muscle fatty acid oxidation. Hormone and Metabolic Research 49 (01):50–7. doi: 10.1055/s-0042-111517.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Busiello, R. A., S. Savarese, and A. Lombardi. 2015. Mitochondrial uncoupling proteins and energy metabolism. Frontiers in Physiology 6:36. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2015.00036.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne, C. D., and G. Targher. 2020. What's new in NAFLD pathogenesis, biomarkers and treatment? Nature Reviews. Gastroenterology & Hepatology 17 (2):70–71. doi: 10.1038/s41575-019-0239-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cai, D., M. Yuan, D. F. Frantz, P. A. Melendez, L. Hansen, J. Lee, and S. E. Shoelson. 2005. Local and systemic insulin resistance resulting from hepatic activation of IKK-beta and NF-kappaB. Nature Medicine 11 (2):183–190. doi: 10.1038/nm1166.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canfora, E. E., J. W. Jocken, and E. E. Blaak. 2015. Short-chain fatty acids in control of body weight and insulin sensitivity. Nature Reviews. Endocrinology 11 (10):577–591. doi: 10.1038/nrendo.2015.128.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cani, P. D., M. Van Hul, C. Lefort, C. Depommier, M. Rastelli, and A. Everard. 2019. Microbial regulation of organismal energy homeostasis. Nature Metabolism 1 (1):34–46. doi: 10.1038/s42255-018-0017-4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Caprio, M., M. Infante, E. Moriconi, A. Armani, A. Fabbri, G. Mantovani, S. Mariani, C. Lubrano, E. Poggiogalle, S. Migliaccio, et al. 2019. Very-low-calorie ketogenic diet (VLCKD) in the management of metabolic diseases: Systematic review and consensus statement from the Italian Society of Endocrinology (SIE). Journal of Endocrinological Investigation 42 (11):1365–1386. doi: 10.1007/s40618-019-01061-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caron, A. Z., X. He, W. Mottawea, E. L. Seifert, K. Jardine, D. Dewar-Darch, G. O. Cron, M.-E. Harper, A. Stintzi, and M. W. McBurney. 2014. The SIRT1 deacetylase protects mice against the symptoms of metabolic syndrome. The FASEB Journal: Official Publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology 28 (3):1306–1316. doi: 10.1096/fj.13-243568.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castello, A., B. Fischer, K. Eichelbaum, R. Horos, B. M. Beckmann, C. Strein, N. E. Davey, D. T. Humphreys, T. Preiss, L. M. Steinmetz, et al. 2012. Insights into RNA biology from an atlas of mammalian mRNA-binding proteins. Cell 149 (6):1393–1406. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2012.04.031.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catic, A. 2018. Cellular metabolism and aging. Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science 155:85–107. doi: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2017.12.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Certo, M., G. Marone, A. de Paulis, C. Mauro, and V. Pucino. 2020. Lactate: Fueling the fire starter. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Systems Biology and Medicine 12 (3):e1474. doi: 10.1002/wsbm.1474.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, M. 2017. Obesity and diabetes: The slow-motion disaster. The Milbank Quarterly 95 (1):11–14. doi: 10.1111/1468-0009.12238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, M. 2018. Ten years in public health 2007-2017: Report by Dr. Margaret Chan, Director-General. World Health Organization, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• Cinti, S., G. Mitchell, G. Barbatelli, I. Murano, E. Ceresi, E. Faloia, S. Wang, M. Fortier, A. S. Greenberg, and M. S. Obin. 2005. Adipocyte death defines macrophage localization and function in adipose tissue of obese mice and humans. Journal of Lipid Research 46 (11):2347–2355. doi: 10.1194/jlr.M500294-JLR200.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, A., and N. Mach. 2017. The crosstalk between the gut microbiota and mitochondria during exercise. Frontiers in Physiology 8:319. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Copps, K. D., and M. F. White. 2012. Regulation of insulin sensitivity by serine/threonine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate proteins IRS1 and IRS2. Diabetologia 55 (10):2565–2582. doi: 10.1007/s00125-012-2644-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czech, M. P., M. Tencerova, D. J. Pedersen, and M. Aouadi. 2013. Insulin signalling mechanisms for triacylglycerol storage. Diabetologia 56 (5):949–964. doi: 10.1007/s00125-013-2869-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Cabo, R., and M. P. Mattson. 2019. Effects of intermittent fasting on health, aging, and disease. The New England Journal of Medicine 381 (26):2541–2551. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra1905136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Nazareth, A. M. 2017. Type 2 diabetes mellitus in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease. Dementia & Neuropsychologia 11 (2):105–113. doi: 10.1590/1980-57642016dn11-020002.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De Rosa, V., M. Galgani, A. Porcellini, A. Colamatteo, M. Santopaolo, C. Zuchegna, A. Romano, S. De Simone, C. Procaccini, C. La Rocca, et al. 2015. Glycolysis controls the induction of human regulatory T cells by modulating the expression of FOXP3 exon 2 splicing variants. Nature Immunology 16 (11):1174–1184. doi: 10.1038/ni.3269.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeBerardinis, R. J., and N. S. Chandel. 2016. Fundamentals of cancer metabolism. Science Advances 2 (5):e1600200. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.1600200.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demine, S., P. Renard, and T. Arnould. 2019. Mitochondrial uncoupling: A key controller of biological processes in physiology and diseases. Cells 8 (8):795. doi: 10.3390/cells8080795.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• den Besten, G., A. Gerding, T. H. van Dijk, J. Ciapaite, A. Bleeker, K. van Eunen, R. Havinga, A. K. Groen, D.-J. Reijngoud, and B. M. Bakker. 2015. Protection against the metabolic syndrome by guar gum-derived short-chain fatty acids depends on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and glucagon-like peptide-1. PLoS One 10 (8):e0136364. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0136364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• den Besten, G., K. van Eunen, A. K. Groen, K. Venema, D.-J. Reijngoud, and B. M. Bakker. 2013. The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and host energy metabolism. Journal of Lipid Research 54 (9):2325–2340. doi: 10.1194/jlr.R036012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebbeling, C. B., H. A. Feldman, G. L. Klein, J. M. W. Wong, L. Bielak, S. K. Steltz, … D. S. Ludwig. 2018. Effects of a low carbohydrate diet on energy expenditure during weight loss maintenance: Randomized trial. BMJ 363:k4583. doi: 10.1136/bmj.k4583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Khatib, S., and A. Yassine. 2019. Insights gained from intermittent fasting & its impact on weight management. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) 8:1734–1743. doi: 10.21275/ART2020639.
   Google Scholar
• Fisher-Wellman, K. H., L. A. A. Gilliam, C. T. Lin, B. L. Cathey, D. S. Lark, and P. Darrell Neufer. 2013. Mitochondrial glutathione depletion reveals a novel role for the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex as a key H2O2-emitting source under conditions of nutrient overload. Free Radical Biology & Medicine 65:1201–1208. doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2013.09.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forny-Germano, L., F. G. De Felice, and M. N. d. N. Vieira. 2018. The role of leptin and adiponectin in obesity-associated cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease. Frontiers in Neuroscience 12 (1027):1027. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2018.01027.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Freese, J., R. J. Klement, B. Ruiz-Núñez, S. Schwarz, and H. Lötzerich. 2017. The sedentary (r)evolution: Have we lost our metabolic flexibility? F1000Research 6:1787. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.12724.2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fröhlich, H., R. Balling, N. Beerenwinkel, O. Kohlbacher, S. Kumar, T. Lengauer, M. H. Maathuis, Y. Moreau, S. A. Murphy, T. M. Przytycka, et al. 2018. From hype to reality: Data science enabling personalized medicine. BMC Medicine 16 (1):150. doi: 10.1186/s12916-018-1122-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frohnert, B. I., and D. A. Bernlohr. 2013. Protein carbonylation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and insulin resistance. Advances in Nutrition 4 (2):157–163. doi: 10.3945/an.112.003319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furman, D., J. Campisi, E. Verdin, P. Carrera-Bastos, S. Targ, C. Franceschi, L. Ferrucci, D. W. Gilroy, A. Fasano, G. W. Miller, et al. 2019. Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span. Nature Medicine 25 (12):1822–1832. doi: 10.1038/s41591-019-0675-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gabel, K., C. M. Kroeger, J. F. Trepanowski, K. K. Hoddy, S. Cienfuegos, F. Kalam, and K. A. Varady. 2019. Differential effects of alternate-day fasting versus daily calorie restriction on insulin resistance. Obesity 27:1443–1450. doi: 10.1002/oby.22564.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaber, T., C. Strehl, and F. Buttgereit. 2017. Metabolic regulation of inflammation. Nature Reviews Rheumatology 13 (5):267–279. doi: 10.1038/nrrheum.2017.37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galgani, J. E., C. Moro, and E. Ravussin. 2008. Metabolic flexibility and insulin resistance. American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism 295 (5):E1009–1017. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.90558.2008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galic, S., J. S. Oakhill, and G. R. Steinberg. 2010. Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 316 (2):129–139. doi: 10.1016/j.mce.2009.08.018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao, A. W., C. Cantó, and R. H. Houtkooper. 2014. Mitochondrial response to nutrient availability and its role in metabolic disease. EMBO Molecular Medicine 6 (5):580–589. doi: 10.1002/emmm.201303782.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaspar, J. M., and L. A. Velloso. 2018. Hypoxia inducible factor as a central regulator of metabolism - Implications for the development of obesity. Frontiers in Neuroscience 12 (813):813. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00813.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gastaldelli, A. 2017. Insulin resistance and reduced metabolic flexibility: Cause or consequence of NAFLD? Clinical Science (London, England: 1979) 131 (22):2701–2704. doi: 10.1042/cs20170987.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gérard, P. 2013. Metabolism of cholesterol and bile acids by the gut microbiota. Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland) 3 (1):14–24. doi: 10.3390/pathogens3010014.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ghareeb, D. A., H. M. Hussien, A. A. Khalil, M. A. El-Saadani, and A. N. Ali. 2010. Toxic effects of lead exposure on the brain of rats: Involvement of oxidative stress, inflammation, acetylcholinesterase, and the beneficial role of flaxseed extract. Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry 92 (1):187–195. doi: 10.1080/02772240902830631.
   Google Scholar
• Goodpaster, B. H., and L. M. Sparks. 2017. Metabolic flexibility in health and disease. Cell Metabolism 25 (5):1027–1036. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2017.04.015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffin, T. M., K. M. Humphries, M. Kinter, H.-Y. Lim, and L. I. Szweda. 2016. Nutrient sensing and utilization: Getting to the heart of metabolic flexibility. Biochimie 124:74–83. doi: 10.1016/j.biochi.2015.10.013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall, K. D. 2017. A review of the carbohydrate-insulin model of obesity. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71 (3):323–326. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2016.260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hassanpour, A., A. Hassanpour, M. Rezvani, M. Hosseini-Sharifabad, and M. Basiri. 2019. The effect of intermittent fasting diet on the hippocampus of adult male mouse after inducing demyelination by ethidium bromide injection. International Journal of Morphology 37 (3):805–814. doi: 10.4067/S0717-95022019000300805.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He, Q., Z. Gao, J. Yin, J. Zhang, Z. Yun, and J. Ye. 2011. Regulation of HIF-1{alpha} activity in adipose tissue by obesity-associated factors: Adipogenesis, insulin, and hypoxia. American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism 300 (5):E877–E885. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00626.2010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho, P.-C., J. D. Bihuniak, A. N. Macintyre, M. Staron, X. Liu, R. Amezquita, Y.-C. Tsui, G. Cui, G. Micevic, J. C. Perales, et al. 2015. Phosphoenolpyruvate is a metabolic checkpoint of anti-tumor T cell responses. Cell 162 (6):1217–1228. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2015.08.012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jantsch, J., D. Chakravortty, N. Turza, A. T. Prechtel, B. Buchholz, R. G. Gerlach, M. Volke, J. Gläsner, C. Warnecke, M. S. Wiesener, et al. 2008. Hypoxia and hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha modulate lipopolysaccharide-induced dendritic cell activation and function. Journal of Immunology (Baltimore, Md: 1950) 180 (7):4697–4705. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.7.4697.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joyce, S. A., and C. G. M. Gahan. 2016. Bile acid modifications at the microbe-host interface: Potential for nutraceutical and pharmaceutical interventions in host health. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology 7 (1):313–333. doi: 10.1146/annurev-food-041715-033159.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kabon, B., A. Nagele, D. Reddy, C. Eagon, J. W. Fleshman, D. I. Sessler, and A. Kurz. 2004. Obesity decreases perioperative tissue oxygenation. Anesthesiology 100 (2):274–280. doi: 10.1097/00000542-200402000-00015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kazgan, N., M. R. Metukuri, A. Purushotham, J. Lu, A. Rao, S. Lee, M. Pratt-Hyatt, A. Lickteig, I. L. Csanaky, Y. Zhao, et al. 2014. Intestine-specific deletion of SIRT1 in mice impairs DCoH2-HNF-1α-FXR signaling and alters systemic bile acid homeostasis. Gastroenterology 146 (4):1006–1016. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2013.12.029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelley, D. E. 2005. Skeletal muscle fat oxidation: Timing and flexibility are everything. The Journal of Clinical Investigation 115 (7):1699–1702. doi: 10.1172/JCI25758.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelley, D. E., B. Goodpaster, R. R. Wing, and J. A. Simoneau. 1999. Skeletal muscle fatty acid metabolism in association with insulin resistance, obesity, and weight loss. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism 277 (6):E1130–1141. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1999.277.6.E1130.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelley, D. E., and L. J. Mandarino. 2000. Fuel selection in human skeletal muscle in insulin resistance: A reexamination. Diabetes 49 (5):677–683. doi: 10.2337/diabetes.49.5.677.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimura, I., D. Inoue, K. Hirano, and G. Tsujimoto. 2014. The SCFA Receptor GPR43 and Energy Metabolism. Frontiers in Endocrinology 5:85–85. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2014.00085.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosteli, A., E. Sugaru, G. Haemmerle, J. F. Martin, J. Lei, R. Zechner, and A. W. Ferrante. Jr. 2010. Weight loss and lipolysis promote a dynamic immune response in murine adipose tissue. The Journal of Clinical Investigation 120 (10):3466–3479. doi: 10.1172/jci42845.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroemer, G., C. López-Otín, F. Madeo, and R. de Cabo. 2018. Carbotoxicity-noxious effects of carbohydrates. Cell 175 (3):605–614. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.07.044.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krüger, K., F. Mooren, K. Eder, and R. Ringseis. 2016. Immune and inflammatory signaling pathways in exercise and obesity. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine 10 (4):268–279. doi: 10.1177/1559827614552986.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuipers, F., V. W. Bloks, and A. K. Groen. 2014. Beyond intestinal soap-bile acids in metabolic control. Nature Reviews. Endocrinology 10 (8):488–498. doi: 10.1038/nrendo.2014.60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lantier, L., J. Fentz, R. Mounier, J. Leclerc, J. T. Treebak, C. Pehmøller, N. Sanz, I. Sakakibara, E. Saint-Amand, S. Rimbaud, et al. 2014. AMPK controls exercise endurance, mitochondrial oxidative capacity, and skeletal muscle integrity. FASEB Journal: Official Publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology 28 (7):3211–3224. doi: 10.1096/fj.14-250449.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, Y.-S., Q.-J. Wu, Y. Xia, J.-Y. Zhang, Y.-T. Jiang, Q. Chang, and Y.-H. Zhao. 2019. Carbohydrate intake and risk of metabolic syndrome: A dose-response meta-analysis from observational studies. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases: Nmcd 29 (12):1288–1298. doi: 10.1016/j.numecd.2019.09.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lodish, H. F. L., and C. Chow. 2019. Cell 2019 (November 28). https://www.britannica.com/science/cell-biology
   Google Scholar
• Ludwig, D. S., and C. B. Ebbeling. 2018. The carbohydrate-insulin model of obesity: Beyond “calories in, calories out”. JAMA Internal Medicine 178 (8):1098. doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2018.2933.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lundgren, M., M. Svensson, S. Lindmark, F. Renstrom, T. Ruge, and J. W. Eriksson. 2007. Fat cell enlargement is an independent marker of insulin resistance and 'hyperleptinaemia'. Diabetologia 50 (3):625–633. doi: 10.1007/s00125-006-0572-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mailloux, R. J., X. Jin, and W. G. Willmore. 2014. Redox regulation of mitochondrial function with emphasis on cysteine oxidation reactions. Redox Biology 2:123–139. doi: 10.1016/j.redox.2013.12.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malinowski, B., K. Zalewska, A. Węsierska, M. M. Sokołowska, M. Socha, G. Liczner, K. Pawlak-Osińska, and M. Wiciński. 2019. Intermittent fasting in cardiovascular disorders-An overview. Nutrients 11 (3):673. doi: 10.3390/nu11030673.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manoogian, E. N. C., A. Chaix, and S. Panda. 2019. When to eat: The importance of eating patterns in health and disease. Journal of Biological Rhythms 34 (6):579–581. doi: 10.1177/0748730419892105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manoogian, E. N. C., and S. Panda. 2017. Circadian rhythms, time-restricted feeding, and healthy aging. Ageing Research Reviews 39:59–67. doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2016.12.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mantovani, A., A. Sica, S. Sozzani, P. Allavena, A. Vecchi, and M. Locati. 2004. The chemokine system in diverse forms of macrophage activation and polarization. Trends in Immunology 25 (12):677–686. doi: 10.1016/j.it.2004.09.015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez, F. O., S. Gordon, M. Locati, and A. Mantovani. 2006. Transcriptional profiling of the human monocyte-to-macrophage differentiation and polarization: New molecules and patterns of gene expression. Journal of Immunology (Baltimore, Md: 1950), 177 (10):7303–7311. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.10.7303.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattson, M. P., K. Moehl, N. Ghena, M. Schmaedick, and A. Cheng. 2018. Intermittent metabolic switching, neuroplasticity and brain health. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 19 (2):63–80. doi: 10.1038/nrn.2017.156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maumus, M., J.-A. Peyrafitte, R. D'Angelo, C. Fournier-Wirth, A. Bouloumié, L. Casteilla, C. Sengenès, and P. Bourin. 2011. Native human adipose stromal cells: Localization, morphology and phenotype. International Journal of Obesity (2005) 35 (9):1141–1153. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2010.269.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McArdle, M., O. Finucane, R. Connaughton, A. McMorrow, and H. Roche. 2013. Mechanisms of obesity-induced inflammation and insulin resistance: Insights into the emerging role of nutritional strategies. Frontiers in Endocrinology 4 (52):52. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2013.00052.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Michailidou, Z. 2019. Fundamental roles for hypoxia signalling in adipose tissue metabolism and inflammation in obesity. Current Opinion in Physiology 12:39–43. doi: 10.1016/j.cophys.2019.09.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mindikoglu, A. L., M. M. Abdulsada, A. Jain, J. M. Choi, P. K. Jalal, S. Devaraj, M. P. Mezzari, J. F. Petrosino, A. R. Opekun, and S. Y. Jung. 2020. Intermittent fasting from dawn to sunset for 30 consecutive days is associated with anticancer proteomic signature and upregulates key regulatory proteins of glucose and lipid metabolism, circadian clock, DNA repair, cytoskeleton remodeling, immune system and cognitive function in healthy subjects. Journal of Proteomics 217:103645. doi: 10.1016/j.jprot.2020.103645.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Motamedi, S., I. Karimi, and F. Jafari. 2017. The interrelationship of metabolic syndrome and neurodegenerative diseases with focus on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF): Kill two birds with one stone. Metabolic Brain Disease 32 (3):651–665. doi: 10.1007/s11011-017-9997-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muoio, D. M. 2014. Metabolic inflexibility: When mitochondrial indecision leads to metabolic gridlock. Cell 159 (6):1253–1262. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2014.11.034.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muoio, D. M., and C. B. Newgard. 2008. Mechanisms of disease: Molecular and metabolic mechanisms of insulin resistance and beta-cell failure in type 2 diabetes. Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology 9 (3):193–205. doi: 10.1038/nrm2327.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neis, E. P. J. G., C. H. C. Dejong, and S. S. Rensen. 2015. The role of microbial amino acid metabolism in host metabolism. Nutrients 7 (4):2930–2946. doi: 10.3390/nu7042930.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Neill, S., and L. O'Driscoll. 2015. Metabolic syndrome: A closer look at the growing epidemic and its associated pathologies. Obesity Reviews: An Official Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 16 (1):1–12. doi: 10.1111/obr.12229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OpenStax. 2013. Overview of metabolic reactions. In Anatomy and physiology, ed. OpenStax, 1150–1154. Houston, TX: Rice University.
   Google Scholar
• Papa, L., and D. Germain. 2014. SirT3 regulates the mitochondrial unfolded protein response. Molecular and Cellular Biology 34 (4):699–710. doi: 10.1128/mcb.01337-13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paschos, G. K., and G. A. FitzGerald. 2017. Circadian clocks and metabolism: Implications for microbiome and aging. Trends in Genetics: TIG 33 (10):760–769. doi: 10.1016/j.tig.2017.07.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen, M. C., D. F. Vatner, and G. I. Shulman. 2017. Regulation of hepatic glucose metabolism in health and disease. Nature Reviews. Endocrinology 13 (10):572–587. doi: 10.1038/nrendo.2017.80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips, M. 2019. Fasting as a therapy in neurological disease. Nutrients 11:2501. doi: 10.3390/nu11102501.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Picard, M., R. P. Juster, and B. S. McEwen. 2014. Mitochondrial allostatic load puts the 'gluc' back in glucocorticoids. Nature Reviews. Endocrinology 10 (5):303–310. doi: 10.1038/nrendo.2014.22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Picard, M., B. McEwen, E. Epel, and C. Sandi. 2018. An energetic view of stress: Focus on mitochondria. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 49: 72–85. doi: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2018.01.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ponziani, F. R., S. Bhoori, C. Castelli, L. Putignani, L. Rivoltini, F. Del Chierico, M. Sanguinetti, D. Morelli, F. Paroni Sterbini, V. Petito, et al. 2019. Hepatocellular carcinoma is associated with gut microbiota profile and inflammation in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.) 69 (1):107–120. doi: 10.1002/hep.30036.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prenner, S. B., C. K. Mulvey, J. F. Ferguson, M. R. Rickels, A. B. Bhatt, and M. P. Reilly. 2014. Very low density lipoprotein cholesterol associates with coronary artery calcification in type 2 diabetes beyond circulating levels of triglycerides. Atherosclerosis 236 (2):244–250. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.07.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prince, M. I., R. T. Woods, M. Guerchet, G.-C. Ali, Y.-T. Wu, and M. A. Prina. 2015. World Alzheimer report 2015 - The global impact of dementia. Alzheimer’s Disease International (ADI), London, UK.
   Google Scholar
• Pucino, V., M. Certo, V. Bulusu, D. Cucchi, K. Goldmann, E. Pontarini, R. Haas, J. Smith, S. E. Headland, K. Blighe, et al. 2019. Lactate buildup at the site of chronic inflammation promotes disease by inducing CD4+ T cell metabolic rewiring. Cell Metabolism 30 (6):1055–1074. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2019.10.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pugazhenthi, S., L. Qin, and P. H. Reddy. 2017. Common neurodegenerative pathways in obesity, diabetes, and Alzheimer's disease. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. Molecular Basis of Disease 1863 (5):1037–1045. doi: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2016.04.017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramsay, R. R., and V. A. Zammit. 2004. Carnitine acyltransferases and their influence on CoA pools in health and disease. Molecular Aspects of Medicine 25 (5-6):475–493. doi: 10.1016/j.mam.2004.06.002.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ravussin, E., R. A. Beyl, E. Poggiogalle, D. S. Hsia, and C. M. Peterson. 2019. Early time-restricted feeding reduces appetite and increases fat oxidation but does not affect energy expenditure in humans. Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.) 27 (8):1244–1254. doi: 10.1002/oby.22518.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ren, J., S. M. Grundy, J. Liu, W. Wang, M. Wang, J. Sun, J. Liu, Y. Li, Z. Wu, and D. Zhao. 2010. Long-term coronary heart disease risk associated with very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in Chinese: The results of a 15-Year Chinese Multi-Provincial Cohort Study (CMCS). Atherosclerosis 211 (1):327–332. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2010.02.020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Renner, K., K. Singer, G. E. Koehl, E. K. Geissler, K. Peter, P. J. Siska, and M. Kreutz. 2017. Metabolic hallmarks of tumor and immune cells in the tumor microenvironment. Frontiers in Immunology 8:248. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roden, M., and G. I. Shulman. 2019. The integrative biology of type 2 diabetes. Nature 576 (7785):51–60. doi: 10.1038/s41586-019-1797-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schrauwen-Hinderling, V. B., M. E. Kooi, and P. Schrauwen. 2016. Mitochondrial function and diabetes: Consequences for skeletal and cardiac muscle metabolism. Antioxidants & Redox Signaling 24 (1):39–51. doi: 10.1089/ars.2015.6291.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seyfried, T. N., and L. M. Shelton. 2010. Cancer as a metabolic disease. Nutrition & Metabolism 7:7. doi: 10.1186/1743-7075-7-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shoelson, S. E., J. Lee, and A. B. Goldfine. 2006. Inflammation and insulin resistance. The Journal of Clinical Investigation 116 (7):1793–1801. doi: 10.1172/JCI29069.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skurk, T., C. Alberti-Huber, C. Herder, and H. Hauner. 2007. Relationship between adipocyte size and adipokine expression and secretion. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 92 (3):1023–1033. doi: 10.1210/jc.2006-1055.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, R. L., M. R. Soeters, R. C. I. Wust, and R. H. Houtkooper. 2018. Metabolic flexibility as an adaptation to energy resources and requirements in health and disease. Endocrine Reviews 39 (4):489–517. doi: 10.1210/er.2017-00211.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spalding, K. L., E. Arner, P. O. Westermark, S. Bernard, B. A. Buchholz, O. Bergmann, L. Blomqvist, J. Hoffstedt, E. Näslund, T. Britton, et al. 2008. Dynamics of fat cell turnover in humans. Nature 453 (7196):783–787. doi: 10.1038/nature06902.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stekovic, S., S. J. Hofer, N. Tripolt, M. A. Aon, P. Royer, L. Pein, J. T. Stadler, T. Pendl, B. Prietl, J. Url, et al. 2019. Alternate day fasting improves physiological and molecular markers of aging in healthy, non-obese humans. Cell Metabolism 31 (4):878–881. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2019.07.016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stenvers, D. J., F. A. J. L. Scheer, P. Schrauwen, S. E. la Fleur, and A. Kalsbeek. 2019. Circadian clocks and insulin resistance. Nature Reviews. Endocrinology 15 (2):75–89. doi: 10.1038/s41574-018-0122-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern, J. S., B. R. Batchelor, N. Hollander, C. K. Cohn, and J. Hirsch. 1972. Adipose-cell size and immunoreactive insulin levels in obese and normal-weight adults. Lancet (London, England) 2 (7784):948–951. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(72)92474-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun, S., Z. Kong, Q. Shi, M. Hu, H. Zhang, D. Zhang, and J. Nie. 2019. Non-energy-restricted low-carbohydrate diet combined with exercise intervention improved cardiometabolic health in overweight Chinese females. Nutrients 11 (12):3051. doi: 10.3390/nu11123051.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tareen, S. H., M. Kutmon, I. C. Arts, T. M. de Kok, C. T. Evelo, and M. E. Adriaens. 2019. Logical modelling reveals the PDC-PDK interaction as the regulatory switch driving metabolic flexibility at the cellular level. Genes & Nutrition 14 (1):27. doi: 10.1186/s12263-019-0647-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turton, J., G. D. Brinkworth, R. Field, H. Parker, and K. Rooney. 2019. An evidence-based approach to developing low-carbohydrate diets for type 2 diabetes management: A systematic review of interventions and methods. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism 21 (11):2513–2525. doi: 10.1111/dom.13837.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber, D. D., S. Aminzadeh-Gohari, J. Tulipan, L. Catalano, R. G. Feichtinger, and B. Kofler. 2019. Ketogenic diet in the treatment of cancer - where do we stand? Molecular Metabolism 33:102–121. doi: 10.1016/j.molmet.2019.06.026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weyer, C., J. E. Foley, C. Bogardus, P. A. Tataranni, and R. E. Pratley. 2000. Enlarged subcutaneous abdominal adipocyte size, but not obesity itself, predicts type II diabetes independent of insulin resistance. Diabetologia 43 (12):1498–1506. doi: 10.1007/s001250051560.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkinson, M. J., E. N. C. Manoogian, A. Zadourian, H. Lo, S. Fakhouri, A. Shoghi, … P. R. Taub. 2019. Ten-hour time-restricted eating reduces weight, blood pressure, and atherogenic lipids in patients with metabolic syndrome. Cell Metabolism 31 (1):92–104. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2019.11.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wise, D. R., P. S. Ward, J. E. S. Shay, J. R. Cross, J. J. Gruber, U. M. Sachdeva, J. M. Platt, R. G. DeMatteo, M. C. Simon, and C. B. Thompson. 2011. Hypoxia promotes isocitrate dehydrogenase-dependent carboxylation of α-ketoglutarate to citrate to support cell growth and viability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108 (49):19611–19616. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1117773108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, S., S. Kwak, J.-H. Lee, S. Kang, and S.-P. Lee. 2019. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is an early predictor of metabolic diseases in a metabolically healthy population. PLoS One 14 (11):e0224626. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224626.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon, G., and J. Song. 2019. Intermittent fasting: A promising approach for preventing vascular dementia. Journal of Lipid and Atherosclerosis 8 (1):1–7. doi: 10.12997/jla.2019.8.1.1.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhou, A., L. Tang, S. Zeng, Y. Lei, S. Yang, and B. Tang. 2020. Gut microbiota: A new piece in understanding hepatocarcinogenesis. Cancer Letters 474:15–22. doi: 10.1016/j.canlet.2020.01.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar