2,003
Views
6
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Reviews

The influence of vegetarian and vegan diets on the state of bone mineral density in humans

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon

References

  • Agnoli, C., L. Baroni, I. Bertini, S. Ciappellano, A. Fabbri, M. Papa, N. Pellegrini, R. Sbarbati, M. L. Scarino, V. Siani, et al. 2017. Position paper on vegetarian diets from the working group of the Italian Society of Human Nutrition. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases: NMCD 27 (12):1037–52. doi: 10.1016/j.numecd.2017.10.020.
  • Aguado, E., F. Pascaretti-Grizon, E. Goyenvalle, M. Audran, and D. Chappard. 2015. Bone mass and bone quality are altered by hypoactivity in the chicken. PLoS One 10 (1):e0116763. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0116763.
  • Ahmado, A., H. I. Khouja, G. J. Kemp, D. F. Guilland-Cumming, R. G. Russell, and A. Bevington. 1993. Calciotropic hormones raise the chemically detectable [Pi] in UMR 106-06 osteoblast-like cells. Cell Biochemistry & Function 11 (1):25–34. doi: 10.1002/cbf.290110104.
  • Akbari, S., and A. A. Rasouli-Ghahroudi. 2018. Vitamin K and bone metabolism: a review of the latest evidence in preclinical studies. BioMed Research International 2018:4629383. doi: 10.1155/2018/4629383.
  • Al Alawi, A. M., S. W. Majoni, and H. Falhammar. 2018. Magnesium and human health: perspectives and research directions. International Journal of Endocrinology 2018:9041694 doi: 10.1155/2018/9041694.
  • Albertazzi, P., and K. Coupland. 2002. Polyunsaturated fatty acids: Is there a role in postmenopausal osteoporosis prevention? Maturitas 42 (1):13–22. doi: 10.1016/S0378-5122(02)00022-1.
  • Ambroszkiewicz, J., M. Chełchowska, K. Szamotulska, G. Rowicka, W. Klemarczyk, M. Strucińska, and J. Gajewska. 2018. The assessment of bone regulatory pathways, bone turnover, and bone mineral density in vegetarian and omnivorous children. Nutrients 10 (2):183. doi: 10.3390/nu10020183.
  • Anderson, B. M., R. S. Gibson, and J. H. Sabry. 1981. The iron and zinc status of long-term vegetarian women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 34 (6):1042–8. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/34.6.1042.
  • Appleby, P., G. Davey, and T. Key. 2002. Hypertension and blood pressure among meat eaters, fish eaters, vegetarians and vegans in EPIC-Oxford. Public Health Nutrition 5 (5):645–54. doi: 10.1079/PHN2002332.
  • Appleby, P., A. Roddam, N. Allen, and T. Key. 2007. Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 61 (12):1400–6. doi: 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602659.
  • Appleton, K. M., W. D. Fraser, P. J. Rogers, A. R. Ness, and J. H. Tobias. 2011. Supplementation with a low-moderate dose of n-3 long-chain PUFA has no short-term effect on bone resorption in human adults. British Journal of Nutrition 105 (8):1145–9. doi: 10.1017/S0007114510004861.
  • Armstrong, B. K., R. E. Davis, D. J. Nicol, A. J. van Merwyk, and C. J. Larwood. 1974. Hematological, vitamin B 12, and folate studies on seventh-day adventist vegetarians. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 27 (7):712–8. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/27.7.712.
  • Arnett, T. 2003. Regulation of bone cell function by acid-base balance. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62 (2):511–20. doi: 10.1079/PNS2003268.
  • Arnett, T. R. 2007. Acid-base regulation of bone metabolism. In Nutritional aspects of osteoporosis, ed. P. Burckhardt, R. P. Heaney and B. Dawson-Hughes, 255–67. New York: Elsevier.
  • Atik, O. S. 1983. Zinc and senile osteoporosis. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 31 (12):790–1. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1983.tb03400.x.
  • Ausman, L. M., L. M. Oliver, B. R. Goldin, M. N. Woods, S. L. Gorbach, and J. T. Dwyer. 2008. Estimated net acid excretion inversely correlates with urine pH in vegans, lacto-ovo vegetarians, and omnivores. Journal of Renal Nutrition: The Official Journal of the Council on Renal Nutrition of the National Kidney Foundation 18 (5):456–65. doi: 10.1053/j.jrn.2008.04.007.
  • Baggio, B., A. Budakovic, M. A. Nassuato, G. Vezzoli, E. Manzato, G. Luisetto, and M. Zaninotto. 2000. Plasma phospholipid arachidonic acid content and calcium metabolism in idiopathic calcium nephrolithiasis. Kidney International 58 (3):1278–84. doi: 10.1046/j.1523-1755.2000.00283.x.
  • Bakaloudi, D. R., A. Halloran, H. L. Rippin, A. C. Oikonomidou, T. I. Dardavesis, J. Williams, K. Wickramasinghe, J. Breda, and M. Chourdakis. 2021. Intake and adequacy of the vegan diet. A systematic review of the evidence. Clinical Nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland) 40 (5):3503–21. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2020.11.035.
  • Banerjee, D. K., and J. B. Chatterjea. 1960. Serum vitamin B12 in vegetarians. British Medical Journal 2 (5204):992–4. doi: 10.1136/bmj.2.5204.992.
  • Barzel, U. S. 1995. The skeleton as an ion exchange system: Implications for the role of acid-base imbalance in the genesis of osteoporosis. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research: The Official Journal of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research 10 (10):1431–6. doi: 10.1002/jbmr.5650101002.
  • Barzel, U. S., and L. K. Massey. 1998. Excess dietary protein can adversely affect bone. The Journal of Nutrition 128 (6):1051–3. doi: 10.1093/jn/128.6.1051.
  • Bassey, E. J., J. J. Littlewood, M. C. Rothwell, and D. W. Pye. 2000. Lack of effect of supplementation with essential fatty acids on bone mineral density in healthy pre- and postmenopausal women: two randomized controlled trials of Efacal v. calcium alone. The British Journal of Nutrition 83 (6):629–35. doi: 10.1017/s0007114500000805.
  • Bedford, J. L., and S. I. Barr. 2005. Diets and selected lifestyle practices of self-defined adult vegetarians from a population-based sample suggest they are more health conscious. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 2 (1):4. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-2-4.
  • Bergqvist, C., and K. Ezzedine. 2019. Vitamin D and the skin: What should a dermatologist know? Giornale Italiano di Dermatologia e Venereologia: Organo Ufficiale, Societa Italiana di Dermatologia e Sifilografia 154 (6):669–80. doi: 10.23736/S0392-0488.19.06433-2.
  • Bischoff-Ferrari, H. A., W. C. Willett, J. B. Wong, A. E. Stuck, H. B. Staehelin, E. J. Orav, A. Thoma, D. P. Kiel, and J. Henschkowski. 2009. Prevention of nonvertebral fractures with oral vitamin D and dose dependency: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Archives of Internal Medicine 169 (6):551–61. doi: 10.1001/archinternmed.2008.600.
  • Bohn, T. 2003. Magnesium absorption in humans. Zurich: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. doi: 10.3929/ethz-a-004523459.
  • Booth, S. L., K. L. Tucker, H. Chen, M. T. Hannan, D. R. Gagnon, L. A. Cupples, P. W. Wilson, J. Ordovas, E. J. Schaefer, B. Dawson-Hughes, et al. 2000. Dietary vitamin K intakes are associated with hip fracture but not with bone mineral density in elderly men and women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71 (5):1201–8. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/71.5.1201.
  • Buclin, T., M. Cosma, M. Appenzeller, A. F. Jacquet, L. A. Décosterd, J. Biollaz, and P. Burckhardt. 2001. Diet acids and alkalis influence calcium retention in bone. Osteoporosis International 12 (6):493–9. doi: 10.1007/s001980170095.
  • Bundesamt für Gesundheit. 2005. Fünfter Schweizerischer Ernährungsbericht. (ed. BAG-OFSP-UFSP-SТOPH). Bern: Bundesamt für Gesundheit.
  • Burckhardt, P. 2013. Dietary anthocyanidins and bone health. In Nutritional influences on bone health, ed. P. Burckhardt, B. Dawson-Hughes and C. M. Weaver, 181–6. London: Springer.
  • Burckhardt, P. 2016. The role of low acid load in vegetarian diet on bone health: A narrative review. Swiss Medical Weekly 146 (2):w14277. doi: 10.4414/smw.2016.14277.
  • Bushinsky, D. A. 2001. Acid-base imbalance and the skeleton. European Journal of Nutrition 40 (5):238–44. doi: 10.1007/s394-001-8351-5.
  • Byberg, L., A. Bellavia, N. Orsini, A. Wolk, and K. Michaëlsson. 2015. Fruit and vegetable intake and risk of hip fracture: A cohort study of Swedish men and women. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 30 (6):976–84. doi: 10.1002/jbmr.2384.
  • Calder, P. C. 2017. Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes: from molecules to man. Biochemical Society Transactions 45 (5):1105–15. doi: 10.1042/bst20160474.
  • Castiglioni, S., A. Cazzaniga, W. Albisetti, and J. Maier. 2013. Magnesium and osteoporosis: current state of knowledge and future research directions. Nutrients 5 (8):3022–33. doi: 10.3390/nu5083022.
  • Chai, Z. F., W. Y. Gan, Y. S. Chin, Y. K. Ching, and M. Appukutty. 2019. Factors associated with anemia among female adult vegetarians in Malaysia. Nutrition Research and Practice 13 (1):23–31. doi: 10.4162/nrp.2019.13.1.23.
  • Charoenngam, N., A. Shirvani, and M. F. Holick. 2019. Vitamin D for skeletal and non-skeletal health: what we should know. Journal of Clinical Orthopaedics and Trauma 10 (6):1082–93. doi: 10.1016/j.jcot.2019.07.004.
  • Chen, L., L. Songcai, X. Jichao, X. Lei, C. Yunyun, L. Wenyue, Z. Yu, W. Gang, W. Wenzhen, S. Hongyu, et al. 2019. The mechanism of dietary protein modulation of bone metabolism via alterations in members of the GH/IGF axis. Current Protein & Peptide Science 20 (2):115–24.
  • Christakos, S., P. Dhawan, A. Verstuyf, L. Verlinden, and G. Carmeliet. 2016. Vitamin D: metabolism, molecular mechanism of action, and pleiotropic effects. Physiological Reviews 96 (1):365–408. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00014.2015.
  • Clarys, P., T. Deliens, I. Huybrechts, P. Deriemaeker, B. Vanaelst, W. De Keyzer, M. Hebbelinck, and P. Mullie. 2014. Comparison of nutritional quality of the vegan, vegetarian, semi-vegetarian, pesco-vegetarian and omnivorous diet. Nutrients 6 (3):1318–32. doi: 10.3390/nu6031318.
  • Coetzer, H., N. Claassen, D. H. van Papendorp, and M. C. Kruger. 1994. Calcium transport by isolated brush border and basolateral membrane vesicles: role of essential fatty acid supplementation. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes & Essential Fatty Acids 50 (5):257–66. doi: 10.1016/0952-3278(94)90164-3.
  • Costanzo, P. R., and P. Knoblovits. 2016. Vitamin D and male reproductive system. Hormone Molecular Biology and Clinical Investigation 28 (3):151–9. doi: 10.1515/hmbci-2016-0049.
  • Craig, W. J. 2009. Health effects of vegan diets. American Society for Clinical Nutrition 89:1627–33.
  • Crowe, F. L., M. Steur, N. E. Allen, P. N. Appleby, R. C. Travis, and T. J. Key. 2011. Plasma concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in meat eaters, fish eaters, vegetarians and vegans: results from the EPIC–Oxford study. Public Health Nutrition 14 (2):340–6. doi: 10.1017/S1368980010002454.
  • Cummings, S. R., W. S. Browner, D. Bauer, K. Stone, K. Ensrud, S. Jamal, and B. Ettinger. 1998. Endogenous hormones and the risk of hip and vertebral fractures among older women. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group. New England Journal of Medicine 339 (11):733–8. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199809103391104.
  • Darling, A. L., D. J. Millward, D. J. Torgerson, C. E. Hewitt, and S. A. Lanham-New. 2009. Dietary protein and bone health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 90 (6):1674–92. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.27799.
  • Davey, G. K., E. A. Spencer, P. N. Appleby, N. E. Allen, K. H. Knox, and T. J. Key. 2003. EPIC-Oxford: lifestyle characteristics and nutrient intakes in a cohort of 33 883 meat-eaters and 31 546 non meat-eaters in the UK. Public Health Nutrition 6 (3):259–69. doi: 10.1079/PHN2002430.
  • Davicco, M. J., C. Puel, P. Lebecque, and V. Coxam. 2013. Blueberry in Calciumand Vitamin D-enriched fermented milk is able to modulate bone metabolism in postmenopausal women. In Nutritional influence on bone health, ed. P. Burckhardt, B. Dawson-Hughes and C. M. Weaver, 373–80. London: Springer.
  • Dawson-Hughes, B., S. S. Harris, E. A. Krall, and G. E. Dallal. 2000. Effect of withdrawal of calcium and vitamin D supplements on bone mass in elderly men and women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 72 (3):745–50. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/72.3.745.
  • De Bortoli, M. C., and S. M. Cozzolino. 2009. Zinc and selenium nutritional status in vegetarians. Biological Trace Element Research 127 (3):228–233. doi: 10.1007/s12011-008-8245-1.
  • DeMar, J. C., Jr., K. Ma, L. Chang, J. M. Bell, and S. I. Rapoport. 2005. α-Linolenic acid does not contribute appreciably to docosahexaenoic acid within brain phospholipids of adult rats fed a diet enriched in docosahexaenoic acid. Journal of Neurochemistry 94 (4):1063–76. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03258.x.
  • Deriemaeker, P., K. Alewaeters, M. Hebbelinck, J. Lefevre, R. Philippaerts, and P. Clarys. 2010. Nutritional status of Flemish vegetarians compared with non-vegetarians: a matched samples study. Nutrients 2 (7):770–80. doi: 10.3390/nu2070770.
  • Dhar, V., and M. Bhatnagar. 2009. Physiology and toxicity of fluoride. Indian Journal of Dental Research 20 (3):350–5. doi: 10.4103/0970-9290.57379.
  • Dhonukshe-Rutten, R. A., M. Lips, N. de Jong, M. J. M. C. A. Paw, G. J. Hiddink, M. van Dusseldorp, L. C. P. G. M. de Groot, and W. A. van Staveren. 2003. Vitamin B-12 status is associated with bone mineral content and bone mineral density in frail elderly women but not in men. The Journal of Nutrition 133 (3):801–7. doi: 10.1093/jn/133.3.801.
  • Dong, M., G. Jiao, H. Liu, W. Wu, S. Li, Q. Wang, D. Xu, X. Li, H. Liu, and Y. Chen. 2016. Biological silicon stimulates collagen type 1 and osteocalcin synthesis in human osteoblast-like cells through the BMP-2/Smad/RUNX2 signaling pathway. Biological Trace Element Research 173 (2):306–15. doi: 10.1007/s12011-016-0686-3.
  • Drissi, H., A. Pouliot, C. Koolloos, J. L. Stein, J. B. Lian, G. S. Stein, and A. J. van Wijnen. 2002. 1,25-(OH)2-vitamin D3 suppresses the bone-related Runx2/Cbfa1 gene promoter. Experimental Cell Research 274 (2):323–33. doi: 10.1006/excr.2002.5474.
  • Elmadfa, I., and I. Singer. 2009. Vitamin B-12 and homocysteine status among vegetarians: a global perspective. American Society for Clinical Nutrition 89:1693–8. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736Y.
  • Elorinne, A.-L., G. Alfthan, I. Erlund, H. Kivimäki, A. Paju, I. Salminen, U. Turpeinen, S. Voutilainen, and J. Laakso. 2016. Food and nutrient intake and nutritional status of Finnish vegans and non-vegetarians. PLoS One 11 (2):e0148235. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0148235.
  • Federal Center for Hygiene and Epidemiology of Rospotrebnadzor (FCHER). 2009. Norms of physiological needs for energy and nutrients for various groups of the population of the Russian Federation. Nutritional Guidelines. Moscow: Federal Center for Hygiene and Epidemiology of Rospotrebnadzor.
  • Feskanich, D., V. Singh, W. C. Willett, and G. A. Colditz. 2002. Vitamin A intake and hip fractures among postmenopausal women. JAMA 287 (1):47–54. doi: 10.1001/jama.287.1.47.
  • Feskanich, D., P. Weber, W. C. Willett, H. Rockett, S. L. Booth, and G. A. Colditz. 1999. Vitamin K intake and hip fractures in women: a prospective study. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69 (1):74–9. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/69.1.74.
  • Feskanich, D., W. C. Willett, M. J. Stampfer, and G. A. Colditz. 1996. Protein consumption and bone fractures in women. American Journal of Epidemiology 143 (5):472–9. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a008767.
  • Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. 2011. Committee to review dietary reference intakes for vitamin D and calcium. In Dietary references intakes for calcium and vitamin D. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
  • Ford, E. S., and A. H. Mokdad. 2003. Dietary magnesium intake in a national sample of US adults. The Journal of Nutrition 133 (9):2879–82. doi: 10.1093/jn/133.9.2879.
  • Frolik, C. A., E. C. Black, R. L. Cain, J. H. Satterwhite, P. L. Brown-Augsburger, M. Sato, and J. M. Hock. 2003. Anabolic and catabolic bone effects of human parathyroid hormone (1-34) are predicted by duration of hormone exposure. Bone 33 (3):372–9. doi: 10.1016/S8756-3282(03)00202-3.
  • Fusaro, M., G. Cianciolo, M. L. Brandi, S. Ferrari, T. L. Nickolas, G. Tripepi, M. Plebani, M. Zaninotto, G. Iervasi, G. La Manna, et al. 2020. Vitamin K and osteoporosis. Nutrients 12 (12):3625. doi: 10.3390/nu12123625.
  • Galchenko, A. V., L. D. Morozova, and Т. S. Zaletova. 2017. Evaluation of protein and amino acid requirements, based on biosynthetic needs and nitrogen balance parameters. Voprosy Dietologii 7 (2):64–8. in Russian). doi: 10.20953/2224-5448-2017-2-64-68.
  • Galchenko, A. V., and A. M. Nazarova. 2019. Essential trace and ultra trace elements in nutrition of vegetarians and vegans. Part 1. Iron, zinc, copper, manganese. Trace Elements in Medicine (Moscow) 20 (4):14–23. (in Russian). doi: 10.19112/2413-6174-2019-20-4-14-23.
  • Galchenko, A. V., and R. Ranjit. 2019. Calcium status among vegetarians and vegans. In Russian scientific-practical conference with international participation, 209–12. Orenburg: Fundamentals of Technological Development of Agriculture.
  • Głogowska-Szeląg, J. 2018. Assessment of the relationship between bmd and body mass index bmi in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis. Wiadomosci Lekarskie (Warsaw, Poland: 1960) 71 (9):1714–8. in Polish). PMID: 30737928.
  • Gunn, C. A., J. L. Weber, A. T. McGill, and M. C. Kruger. 2015. Increased intake of selected vegetables, herbs and fruit may reduce bone turnover in post-menopausal women. Nutrients 7 (4):2499–517. doi: 10.3390/nu7042499.
  • Haddad, E. H., L. S. Berk, J. D. Kettering, R. W. Hubbard, and W. R. Peters. 1999. Dietary intake and biochemical, hematologic, and immune status of vegans compared with nonvegetarians. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70 (3):586s–93. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/70.3.586s.
  • Hannan, M. T., K. L. Tucker, B. Dawson-Hughes, L. A. Cupples, D. T. Felson, and D. P. Kiel. 2000. Effect of dietary protein on bone loss in elderly men and women: The Framingham Osteoporosis Study. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 15 (12):2504–12. doi: 10.1359/jbmr.2000.15.12.2504.
  • Heaney, R. P. 2000. Calcium, dairy products and osteoporosis. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 19 (sup2):83S–99. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2000.10718088.
  • Heaney, R. P. 2001. Protein intake and bone health: the influence of belief systems on the conduct of nutritional science. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 73 (1):5–6. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/73.1.5.
  • Heaney, R. P., and C. M. Weaver. 1990. Calcium absorption from kale. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51 (4):656–7. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/51.4.656.
  • Herrmann, W., R. Obeid, H. Schorr, U. Hübner, J. Geisel, M. Sand-Hill, N. Ali, and M. Herrmann. 2009. Enhanced bone metabolism in vegetarians – the role of vitamin B12 deficiency. Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine 47 (11):1381–7. doi: 10.1515/CCLM.2009.302.
  • Herrmann, W., H. Schorr, R. Obeid, and J. Geisel. 2003. Vitamin B-12 status, particularly holotranscobalamin II and methylmalonic acid concentrations, and hyperhomocysteinemia in vegetarians. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78 (1):131–6. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/78.1.131.
  • Hiremath, R. N., A. K. Yadav, S. Ghodke, J. Yadav, S. Latwal, and A. Kotwal. 2018. Osteoporosis among household women: a growing but neglected phenomenon. Medical Journal, Armed Forces India 74 (1):5–10. doi: 10.1016/j.mjafi.2016.09.007.
  • Hooshmand, S., S. C. Chai, R. L. Saadat, M. E. Payton, K. Brummel-Smith, and B. H. Arjmandi. 2011. Comparative effects of dried plum and dried apple on bone in postmenopausal women. The British Journal of Nutrition 106 (6):923–30. doi: 10.1017/S000711451100119X.
  • Ho-Pham, L. T., P. L. Nguyen, T. T. Le, T. A. Doan, N. T. Tran, T. A. Le, and T. V. Nguyen. 2009b. Veganism, bone mineral density, and body composition: a study in Buddhist nuns. Osteoporosis International 20 (12):2087–93. doi: 10.1007/s00198-009-0916-z.
  • Ho-Pham, L. T., N. D. Nguyen, and T. V. Nguyen. 2009a. Effect of vegetarian diets on bone mineral density: A Bayesian meta-analysis. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 90 (4):943–50. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.27521.
  • Ho-Pham, L. T., B. Q. Vu, T. Q. Lai, N. D. Nguyen, and T. V. Nguyen. 2012. Vegetarianism, bone loss, fracture and vitamin D: a longitudinal study in Asian vegans and non-vegans. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 66 (1):75–82. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2011.131.
  • Huang, Y. C., S. J. Chang, Y. T. Chiu, H. H. Chang, and C. H. Cheng. 2003. The status of plasma homocysteine and related B-vitamins in healthy young vegetarians and nonvegetarians. European Journal of Nutrition 42 (2):84–90. doi: 10.1007/s00394-003-0387-5.
  • Hunt, J. R., and R. A. Vanderpool. 2001. Apparent copper absorption from a vegetarian diet. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 74 (6):803–7. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/74.6.803.
  • Igarashi, M., J. C.Jr.DeMar, K. Ma, L. Chang, J. M. Bell, and S. I. Rapoport. 2007. Docosahexaenoic acid synthesis from alpha-linolenic acid by rat brain is unaffected by dietary n-3 PUFA deprivation . Journal of Lipid Research 48 (5):1150–8. doi: 10.1194/jlr.m600549-jlr200.
  • Iguacel, I., M. L. Miguel-Berges, A. Gomez-Bruton, L. A. Moreno, and C. Julian. 2019. Veganism, vegetarianism, bone mineral density, and fracture risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrition Reviews 77 (1):1–18. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuy045.
  • Iwamoto, J., J. K. Yeh, T. Takeda, and Y. Sato. 2005. Effects of vitamin K2 administration on calcium balance and bone mass in young rats fed normal or low calcium diet. Hormone Research 63 (5):211–9. doi: 10.1159/000085681.
  • Jackson, R. D., A. Z. LaCroix, M. Gass, R. B. Wallace, J. Robbins, C. E. Lewis, T. Bassford, S. A. A. Beresford, H. R. Black, P. Blanchette, et al. 2006. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of fractures. New England Journal of Medicine 354 (7):669–83. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa055218.
  • Janelle, K. C., and S. I. Barr. 1995. Nutrient intakes and eating behaviour scores of vegetarian and nonvegetarian women. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 95 (2):180–6. doi: 10.1016/S0002-8223(95)00045-3.
  • Jasinghe, V. J., and C. O. Perera. 2005. Distribution of ergosterol in different tissues of mushrooms and its effect on the conversion of ergosterol to vitamin D2 by UV irradiation. Food Chemistry 92 (3):541–6. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.08.022.
  • Josse, A. R., S. A. Atkinson, M. A. Tarnopolsky, and S. M. Phillips. 2012. Diets higher in dairy foods and dietary protein support bone health during diet- and exercise-induced weight loss in overweight and obese premenopausal women. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 97 (1):251–60. doi: 10.1210/jc.2011-2165.
  • Jugdaohsingh, R. 2007. Silicon and bone health. The Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging 11 (2):99–110.
  • Kahleova, H., S. Levin, and N. Barnard. 2017. Cardio-metabolic benefits of plant-based diets. Nutrients 9 (8):848. doi: 10.3390/nu9080848.
  • Kalkwarf, H. J., J. C. Khoury, and B. P. Lanphear. 2003. Milk intake during childhood and adolescence, adult bone density, and osteoporotic fractures in US women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77 (1):257–65. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/77.1.257.
  • Kelly, O., S. Cusack, C. Jewell, and K. D. Cashman. 2003. The effect of polyunsaturated fatty acids, including conjugated linoleic acid, on calcium absorption and bone metabolism and composition in young growing rats. British Journal of Nutrition 90 (4):743–50. doi: 10.1079/BJN2003951.
  • Kettler, D. B. 2001. Can manipulation of the ratios of essential fatty acids slow the rapid rate of postmenopausal bone loss? Alternative Medicine Review: A Journal of Clinical Therapeutic 6 (1):61–77.
  • Khomenko, O., and Е. I. Khomenko. 2018. Minerals and human health. Dnipro: Analytics.
  • Kim, M.-H., M.-K. Choi, and C.-J. Sung. 2007. Bone mineral density of Korean postmenopausal women is similar between vegetarians and nonvegetarians. Nutrition Research 27 (10):612–7. doi: 10.1016/j.nutres.2007.07.006.
  • Kim, D. E., S. H. Cho, H. M. Park, and Y. K. Chang. 2016. Relationship between bone mineral density and dietary intake of β-carotene, vitamin C, zinc and vegetables in postmenopausal Korean women: A cross-sectional study. The Journal of International Medical Research 44 (5):1103–14. doi: 10.1177/0300060516662402.
  • Knurick, J. R., C. S. Johnston, S. J. Wherry, and I. Aguayo. 2015. Comparison of correlates of bone mineral density in individuals adhering to lacto-ovo, vegan, or omnivore diets: a cross-sectional investigation. Nutrients 7 (5):3416–26. doi: 10.3390/nu7053416.]
  • Kohlenberg-Mueller, K., and L. Raschka. 2003. Calcium balance in young adults on a vegan and lactovegetarian diet. Journal of Bone and Mineral Metabolism 21 (1):28–33. doi: 10.1007/s007740300005.
  • Komarova, S. V., A. Pereverzev, J. W. Shum, S. M. Sims, and S. J. Dixon. 2005. Convergent signaling by acidosis and receptor activator of NF-kappaB ligand (RANKL) on the calcium/calcineurin/NFAT pathway in osteoclasts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102 (7):2643–8. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0406874102.
  • Komoroski, M., N. Azad, and P. Camacho. 2014. Disorders of bone and bone mineral metabolism. Handbook of Clinical Neurology 120:865–87. doi: 10.1016/b978-0-7020-4087-0.00058-9.
  • Kovacs, C. S. 2015. Calcium, phosphorus, and bone metabolism in the fetus and newborn. Early Human Development 91 (11):623–8. doi: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2015.08.007.
  • Kramer, L. B., D. Osis, J. Coffey, and H. Spencer. 1984. Mineral and trace element content of vegetarian diets. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 3 (1):3–11. doi: 10.1080/07315724.1984.10720032.
  • Krivosı’Ková, Z., M. Krajcovicová-Kudlácková, V. Spustová, K. Stefíková, M. Valachovicová, P. Blazícek, and T. Nĕmcová. 2010. The association between high plasma homocysteine levels and lower bone mineral density in Slovak women: the impact of vegetarian diet. European Journal of Nutrition 49 (3):147–53. doi: 10.1007/s00394-009-0059-1.
  • Krstić, G. 2011. Asthma prevalence associated with geographical latitude and regional insolation in the United States of America and Australia. PLoS One. 6 (4):e18492. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0018492.
  • Kruger, M. C., H. Coetzer, R. de Winter, G. Gericke, and D. H. van Papendorp. 1998. Calcium, gamma-linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid supplementation in senile osteoporosis. Aging (Milan, Italy) 10 (5):385–94.
  • Larsson, C. L., and G. K. Johansson. 2002. Dietary intake and nutritional status of young vegans and omnivores in Sweden. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76 (1):100–6. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/76.1.100.
  • Lau, E. M. C., T. Kwok, J. Woo, and S. C. Ho. 1998. Bone mineral density in Chinese elderly female vegetarians, vegans, lacto-vegetarians and omnivores. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52 (1):60–4. doi: 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600516.
  • Leboy, P. S., L. Vaias, B. Uschmann, E. Golub, S. L. Adams, and M. Pacifici. 1989. Ascorbic acid induces alkaline phosphatase, type X collagen, and calcium deposition in cultured chick chondrocytes. The Journal of Biological Chemistry 264 (29):17281–6. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)71489-0.
  • Leder, B. Z. 2017. Parathyroid Hormone and Parathyroid Hormone-Related Protein Analogs in Osteoporosis Therapy. Current Osteoporosis Reports 15 (2):110–19. doi: 10.1007/s9.14-017-0353-4.
  • Lemann, J., D. A. Bushinsky, and L. L. Hamm. 2003. Bone buffering of acid and base in humans. American Journal of Physiology. Renal Physiology 285 (5):F811–F832. doi: 10.1152/ajprenal.00115.2003.
  • Li, M., T. Hasegawa, H. Masuki, Z. Liu, Y. Guo, R. Suzuki, T. Yamamoto, P. H. L. Freitas, and N. Amizuka. 2010. Ultrastructural assessment of mineral crystallization and collagen mineralization in bone. Journal of Oral Biosciences 52 (2):94–9. doi: 10.1016/S1349-0079(10)80037-4.
  • Li, D., O. Ortwin, H. Drummond, and A. J. Sinclair. 2012. Omega-3 (n -3) fatty acids. In Lipids for functional foods and nutraceuticals, 225–62. Cambridge: Oily Press Lipid Library Series. doi: 10.1533/9780857097965.225.
  • Liu, S., H. Zhou, H. Liu, H. Ji, W. Fei, and E. Luo. 2019. Fluorine-contained hydroxyapatite suppresses bone resorption through inhibiting osteoclasts differentiation and function in vitro and in vivo. Cell Proliferation 52 (3):e12613 doi: 10.1111/cpr.12613.
  • Looker, A. C., and M. E. Mussolino. 2008. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and hip fracture risk in older U.S. white adults. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research: The Official Journal of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research 23 (1):143–50. doi: 10.1359/jbmr.071003.
  • Lowe, N. M., N. M. Lowe, W. D. Fraser, and M. J. Jackson. 2002. Is there a potential therapeutic value of copper and zinc for osteoporosis? The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 61 (2):181–5. doi: 10.1079/pns2002154.
  • Macdonald, H. M., F. H. Dowie, F. Moore, S. A. Grubb Da, and D. M. Reid. 2001. Higher intakes of fruit and vegetables are associated with higher bone mass in perimenopausal Scottish women. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 60:202A.
  • Macdonald, H. M., S. A. New, W. D. Fraser, M. K. Campbell, and D. M. Reid. 2005. Low dietary potassium intakes and high dietary estimates of net endogenous acid production are associated with low bone mineral density in premenopausal women and increased markers of bone resorption in postmenopausal women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 81 (4):923–33. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/81.4.923.
  • Mahaffey, K. R. 2009. Omega-3 fatty acids and methylmercury in diet: Sources, effects, and public health considerations. In NIMD Forum 2009. Minamata City: National Institute for Minamata Disease
  • Mahdavi-Roshan, M., M. Ebrahimi, and A. Ebrahimi. 2015. Copper, magnesium, zinc and calcium status in osteopenic and osteoporotic post-menopausal women. Clinical Cases in Mineral and Bone Metabolism: The Official Journal of the Italian Society of Osteoporosis, Mineral Metabolism, and Skeletal Diseases 12 (1):18–21. doi: 10.11138/ccmbm/2015.12.1.018.
  • Majchrzak, D., I. Singer, M. Männer, P. Rust, D. Genser, K. H. Wagner, and I. Elmadfa. 2006. B-vitamin status and concentrations of homocysteine in Austrian omnivores, vegetarians and vegans. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 50 (6):485–91. doi: 10.1159/000095828.
  • Mangels, A. R. 2014. Bone nutrients for vegetarians. American Society for Clinical Nutrition 100 (1):469–75. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.113.071423.
  • Mao, L., L. Xia, J. Chang, J. Liu, L. Jiang, C. Wu, and B. Fang. 2017. The synergistic effects of Sr and Si bioactive ions on osteogenesis, osteoclastogenesis and angiogenesis for osteoporotic bone regeneration. Acta Biomaterialia 61:217–32. doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2017.08.015.
  • Marini, J. C., W. A. Cabral, A. M. Barnes, and W. Chang. 2007. Components of the collagen prolyl 3-hydroxylation complex are crucial for normal bone development. Cell Cycle (Georgetown, Tex.) 6 (14):1675–81. doi: 10.4161/cc.6.14.4474.
  • Mariotti, F., and C. D. Gardner. 2019. Dietary protein and amino acids in vegetarian diets—a review. Nutrients 11 (11):2661. doi: 10.3390/nu11112661.
  • Mehta, N., A. Malootian, and J. Gilligan. 2003. Calcitonin for osteoporosis and bone pain. Current Pharmaceutical Design 9 (32):2659–76. doi: 10.2174/1381612033453622.
  • Melina, V., W. Craig, and S. Levin. 2016. Position of the academy of nutrition and dietetics: vegetarian diets. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 116 (12):1970–80. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.025.
  • Menzel, J., K. Abraham, G. I. Stangl, P. M. Ueland, R. Obeid, M. B. Schulze, I. Herter-Aeberli, T. Schwerdtle, and C. Weikert. 2021. Vegan diet and bone health-results from the cross-sectional RBVD study. Nutrients 13 (2):685. doi: 10.3390/nu13020685.
  • Millet, P., J. C. Guilland, F. Fuchs, and J. Klepping. 1989. Nutrient intake and vitamin status of healthy French vegetarians and nonvegetarians. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 50 (4):718–27. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/50.4.718.
  • Misra, D., S. D. Berry, K. E. Broe, R. R. McLean, L. A. Cupples, K. L. Tucker, D. P. Kiel, and M. T. Hannan. 2011. Does dietary protein reduce hip fracture risk in elders? The Framingham Osteoporosis Study. Osteoporosis International: A Journal Established as Result of Cooperation between the European Foundation for Osteoporosis and the National Osteoporosis Foundation of the USA 22 (1):345–9. doi: 10.1007/s00198-010-1179-4.
  • Morris, M. S., P. F. Jacques, and J. Selhub. 2005. Relation between homocysteine and B-vitamin status indicators and bone mineral density in older Americans. Bone 37 (2):234–42. doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2005.04.017.
  • Movassagh, E. Z., A. D. G. Baxter-Jones, S. Kontulainen, S. Whiting, M. Szafron, and H. Vatanparast. 2018. Vegetarian-style dietary pattern during adolescence has long-term positive impact on bone from adolescence to young adulthood: A longitudinal study. Nutrition Journal 17 (1):36 doi: 10.1186/s12937-018-0324-3.
  • Munger, R. G., J. R. Cerhan, and B. C. Chiu. 1999. Prospective study of dietary protein intake and risk of hip fracture in postmenopausal women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69 (1):147–52. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/69.1.147.
  • Mutlu, M., M. Argun, E. Kilic, R. Saraymen, and S. Yazar. 2007. Magnesium, zinc and copper status in osteoporotic, osteopenic and normal post-menopausal women. The Journal of International Medical Research 35 (5):692–5. doi: 10.1177/147323000703500514.
  • Nakamoto, K., S. Watanabe, H. Kudo, and A. Tanaka. 2008. Nutritional characteristics of middle-aged Japanese vegetarians. Journal of Atherosclerosis and Thrombosis 15 (3):122e9–129. doi: 10.5551/jat.E546.
  • Nebl, J., J. P. Schuchardt, P. Wasserfurth, S. Haufe, J. Eigendorf, U. Tegtbur, and A. Hahn. 2019. Characterization, dietary habits and nutritional intake of omnivorous, lacto-ovo vegetarian and vegan runners – a pilot study. BMC Nutrition 5:51. doi: 10.1186/s40795-019-0313-8.
  • New, S. A. 2004. Do vegetarians have a normal bone mass? Osteoporosis International 15 (9):679–88. doi: 10.1007/s00198-004-1647-9.
  • New, S. A., H. M. MacDonald, M. K. Campbell, J. C. Martin, M. J. Garton, S. P. Robins, and D. M. Reid. 2004. Lower estimates of net endogenous noncarbonic acid production are positively associated with indexes of bone health in premenopausal and perimenopausal women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79 (1):131–8. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/79.1.131.
  • New, S. A., S. P. Robins, M. K. Campbell, J. C. Martin, M. J. Garton, C. Bolton-Smith, D. A. Grubb, S. J. Lee, and D. M. Reid. 2000. Dietary influences on bone mass and bone metabolism: Further evidence of a positive link between fruit and vegetable consumption and bone health? The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71 (1):142–51. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/71.1.142.
  • Nieves, J. W., E. Barrett-Connor, E. S. Siris, M. Zion, S. Barlas, and Y. T. Chen. 2008. Calcium and vitamin D intake influence bone mass, but not short-term fracture risk, in Caucasian postmenopausal women from the National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment (NORA) Study. Osteoporosis International 19 (5):673–9. doi: 10.1007/s00198-007-0501-2.
  • Obersby, D., D. C. Chappell, A. Dunnett, and A. A. Tsiami. 2013. Plasma total homocysteine status of vegetarians compared with omnivores: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The British Journal of Nutrition 109 (5):785–94. doi: 10.1017/S000711451200520X.
  • Palacios, C. 2006. The role of nutrients in bone health, from A to Z. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 46 (8):621–8. doi: 10.1080/10408390500466174.
  • Paturi, M., H. Tapanainen, H. Reinivuo, and P. Pietinen. 2008. Finravinto 2007 –tutkimus. The National FINDIET 2007 Survey. Helsinki: Kansanterveyslaitoksen julkaisuja.
  • Pawlak, R. 2015. Is vitamin B12 deficiency a risk factor for cardiovascular disease in vegetarians? American Journal of Preventive Medicine 48 (6):e11–e26. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2015.02.009.
  • Prentice, A. 2004. Diet, nutrition and the prevention of osteoporosis. Public Health Nutrition 7 (1A):227–43. doi: 10.1079/phn2003590.
  • Prynne, C. J., G. D. Mishra, M. A. O’Connell, G. Muniz, M. A. Laskey, L. Yan, A. Prentice, and F. Ginty. 2006. Fruit and vegetable intakes and bone mineral status: A cross sectional study in 5 age and sex cohorts. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83 (6):1420–8. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/83.6.1420.
  • Qu, X., Z. He, H. Qiao, Z. Zhai, Z. Mao, Z. Yu, and K. Dai. 2018. Serum copper levels are associated with bone mineral density and total fracture. Journal of Orthopaedic Translation 14:34–44. doi: 10.1016/j.jot.2018.05.001.
  • Rao, A., and L. Rao. 2007. Carotenoids and human health. Pharmacological Research 55 (3):207–16. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2007.01.012.
  • Reed, J. A., J. B. B. Anderson, F. A. Tylavsky, and P. N.Jr.Gallagher. 1994. Comparative changes in radial bone density of elderly female lactoovovegetarians and omnivores. American Society for Clinical Nutrition 59:1197–202.
  • Remer, T., D. Krupp, and L. Shi. 2014. Dietary protein’s and dietary acid load’s influence on bone health. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 54 (9):1140–50. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2011.627519.
  • Renis, M., D. Lobreglio, P. Congedo, M. C. Montinaro, M. Muratore, and G. Lobreglio. 2018. Assessment of serum vitamin B12 levels and other metabolic parameters in subjects with different values of bone mineral density. Journal of Clinical Medicine Research 10 (3):233–9. doi: 10.14740/jocmr3300w.
  • Revenko, A. V., and A. V. Demchenko. 2015. Diagnostic methods in neurology. Average values physiological functions: guidelines for interns in the specialty, “General practice – family medicine”, “Internal diseases”. Zaporozhye, Russia.
  • Riggs, B. L., and L. J. Melton. 2000. Osteoporosis: etiology, diagnosis, and management. Saint Petersburg: BINOM.
  • Rodríguez, M. G., P. G. Rebollar, S. Mattioli, and C. Castellini. 2019. n-3 PUFA sources (Precursor/Products): a review of current knowledge on rabbit. Animals 9 (10):806. doi: 10.3390/ani9100806.
  • Rodríguez, J. P., S. Ríos, and M. González. 2002. Modulation of the proliferation and differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells by copper. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry 85 (1):92–100.
  • Rossi, M., G. Battafarano, J. Pepe, S. Minisola, and A. Del Fattore. 2019. The endocrine function of osteocalcin regulated by bone resorption: a lesson from reduced and increased bone mass diseases. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 20 (18):4502. doi: 10.3390/ijms20184502.
  • Rostand, S. G., L. A. McClure, S. T. Kent, S. E. Judd, and O. M. Gutiérrez. 2016. Associations of blood pressure, sunlight, and vitamin D in community-dwelling adults. Journal of Hypertension 34 (9):1704–10. doi: 10.1097/HJH.0000000000001018.
  • Ryder, K. M., R. I. Shorr, A. J. Bush, S. B. Kritchevsky, T. Harris, K. Stone, J. Cauley, and F. A. Tylavsky. 2005. Magnesium intake from food and supplements is associated with bone mineral density in healthy older white subjects. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 53 (11):1875–80. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53561.x.
  • Sahni, S., M. T. Hannan, J. Blumberg, L. A. Cupples, D. P. Kiel, and K. L. Tucker. 2009b. Inverse association of carotenoid intakes with 4-y change in bone mineral density in elderly men and women: The Framingham Osteoporosis Study. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 89 (1):416–24. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2008.26388.
  • Sahni, S., M. T. Hannan, J. Blumberg, L. A. Cupples, D. P. Kiel, and K. L. Tucker. 2009c. Protective effect of total carotenoid and lycopene intake on the risk of hip fracture: a 17-year follow-up from the Framingham Osteoporosis Study. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research: The Official Journal of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research 24 (6):1086–94. doi: 10.1359/jbmr.090102.
  • Sahni, S., M. T. Hannan, D. Gagnon, J. Blumberg, L. A. Cupples, D. P. Kiel, and K. L. Tucker. 2008. High vitamin C intake is associated with lower 4-year bone loss in elderly men. The Journal of Nutrition 138 (10):1931–8. doi: 10.1093/jn/138.10.1931.
  • Sahni, S., M. T. Hannan, D. Gagnon, J. Blumberg, L. A. Cupples, D. P. Kiel, and K. L. Tucker. 2009a. Protective effect of total and supplemental vitamin C intake on the risk of hip fracture-a 17-year follow-up from the Framingham Osteoporosis Study. Osteoporosis International: A Journal Established as Result of Cooperation between the European Foundation for Osteoporosis and the National Osteoporosis Foundation of the USA 20 (11):1853–61. doi: 10.1007/s00198-009-0897-y.
  • Samsel, A., and S. Seneff. 2015. Glyphosate, pathways to modern diseases III: Manganese, neurological diseases, and associated pathologies. Surgical Neurology International 6:45 doi: 10.4103/2152-7806.153876.
  • Schüpbach, R., R. Wegmüller, C. Berguerand, M. Bui, and I. Herter-Aeberli. 2017. Micronutrient status and intake in omnivores, vegetarians and vegans in Switzerland. European Journal of Nutrition 56 (1):283–93. doi: 10.1007/s00394-015-1079-7.
  • Schürch, M. A., R. Rizzoli, D. Slosman, L. Vadas, P. Vergnaud, and J. P. Bonjour. 1998. Protein supplements increase serum insulin-like growth factor-I levels and attenuate proximal femur bone loss in patients with recent hip fracture. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Annals of Internal Medicine 128 (10):801–9. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-128-10-199805150-00002.
  • Sebastian, A., S. T. Harris, J. H. Ottaway, K. M. Todd, and R. C.Jr.Morris. 1994. Improved mineral balance and skeletal metabolism in postmenopausal women treated with potassium bicarbonate. New England Journal of Medicine 330 (25):1776–81. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199406233302502.
  • Sellmeyer, D. E., K. L. Stone, A. Sebastian, and S. R. Cummings. 2001. A high ratio of dietary animal to vegetable protein increases the rate of bone loss and the risk of fracture in postmenopausal women. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 73 (1):118–22. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/73.1.118.
  • Setchell, K. D., and E. Lydeking-Olsen. 2003. Dietary phytoestrogens and their effect on bone: Evidence from in vitro and in vivo, human observational, and dietary intervention studies. American Society for Clinical Nutrition 78:593–609.
  • Sirotkin, A. V., and A. H. Harrath. 2014. Phytoestrogens and their effects. European Journal of Pharmacology 741:230–6. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.07.057.
  • Sobiecki, J. G., P. N. Appleby, K. E. Bradbury, and T. J. Key. 2016. High compliance with dietary recommendations in a cohort of meat eaters, fish eaters, vegetarians, and vegans: Results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition-Oxford study. Nutrition Research (New York, N.Y.) 36 (5):464–77. doi: 10.1016/j.nutres.2015.12.016.
  • Sortino, M. A., G. Aleppo, U. Scapagnini, and P. L. Canonico. 1992. Ipriflavone inhibits phosphoinositide hydrolysis and Ca2+ uptake in the osteoblast-like UMR-106 cells. European Journal of Pharmacology 226 (3):7–273. doi: 10.1016/0922-4106(92)90072-4.
  • Srikumar, T. S., G. K. Johansson, P. A. Ockerman, J. A. Gustafsson, and B. Akesson. 1992. Trace element status in healthy subjects switching from a mixed to a lactovegetarian diet for 12 mo. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 55 (4):885–90. edoi: 10.1093/ajcn/55.4.885.
  • Stahler, C. 2013. How often do Americans eat vegetarian meals? And how many adults in the US are vegetarian? The Vegetarian Resource Group website. Accessed March 19, 2021. https://www.vrg.org/journal/vj2011issue4/vj2011issue4poll.php.
  • Stone, K. L., D. C. Bauer, D. Sellmeyer, and S. R. Cummings. 2004. Low serum vitamin B-12 levels are associated with increased hip bone loss in older women: A prospective study. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 89 (3):1217–21. doi: 10.1210/jc.2003-030074.
  • Ströhle, A., A. Hahn, and A. Sebastian. 2010. Estimation of the diet-dependent net acid load in 229 worldwide historically studied hunter-gatherer societies. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 91 (2):406–12. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.28637.
  • Ströhle, A., A. Waldmann, J. Koschizke, C. Leitzmann, and A. Hahn. 2011. Diet-dependent net endogenous acid load of vegan diets in relation to food groups and bone health-related nutrients: results from the german vegan study. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 59 (2-4):117–26. doi: 10.1159/000331572.
  • Sugiura, M., M. Nakamura, K. Ogawa, Y. Ikoma, F. Ando, and M. Yano. 2008. Bone mineral density in post-menopausal female subjects is associated with serum antioxidant carotenoids. Osteoporosis International: A Journal Established as Result of Cooperation between the European Foundation for Osteoporosis and the National Osteoporosis Foundation of the USA 19 (2):211–9. doi: 10.1007/s00198-007-0457-2.
  • Terano, T. 2001. Effect of omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ingestion on bone metabolism and osteoporosis. World Review of Nutrition & Dietetics 88:141–7.
  • Thorpe, D. L., S. F. Knutsen, W. L. Beeson, S. Rajaram, and G. E. Fraser. 2008. Effects of meat consumption and vegetarian diet on risk of wrist fracture over 25 years in a cohort of peri- and postmenopausal women ). Public Health Nutrition 11 (6):564–72. doi: 10.1017/S1368980007000808.
  • Tong, T. Y. N., P. N. Appleby, M. E. G. Armstrong, G. K. Fensom, A. Knuppel, K. Papier, A. Perez-Cornago, R. C. Travis, and T. J. Key. 2020. Vegetarian and vegan diets and risks of total and site-specific fractures: Results from the prospective EPIC-Oxford study. BMC Medicine 18 (1):353 doi: 10.1186/s12916-020-01815-3.
  • Tong, X., X. Chen, S. Zhang, M. Huang, X. Shen, J. Xu, and J. Zou. 2019. The effect of exercise on the prevention of osteoporosis and bone angiogenesis. BioMed Research International 2019:8171897 doi: 10.1155/2019/8171897.
  • Tucker, K. L. 2014. Vegetarian diets and bone status. American Society for Clinical Nutrition 100 (1):329–35. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.113.071621.
  • Tucker, K. L., M. T. Hannan, H. Chen, L. A. Cupples, P. W. Wilson, and D. P. Kiel. 1999. Potassium, magnesium, and fruit and vegetable intakes are associated with greater bone mineral density in elderly men and women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69 (4):727–36. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/69.4.727.
  • Tucker, K. L., M. T. Hannan, N. Qiao, P. F. Jacques, J. Selhub, L. A. Cupples, and D. P. Kiel. 2005. Low plasma vitamin B12 is associated with lower BMD: The Framingham Osteoporosis Study. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 20 (1):152–8. doi: 10.1359/jbmr.2005.20.1.152.
  • Tur, J. A., M. M. Bibiloni, A. Sureda, and A. Pons. 2012. Dietary sources of omega 3 fatty acids: Public health risks and benefits. British Journal of Nutrition 107 (S2):S23–S52. doi: 10.1017/S0007114512001456.
  • Tylavsky, F. A., and J. J. Anderson. 1988. Dietary factors in bone health of elderly lactoovovegetarian and omnivorous women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48 (3 Suppl):842–9. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/48.3.842.
  • Vacek, T. P., A. Kalani, M. J. Voor, S. C. Tyagi, and N. Tyagi. 2013. The role of homocysteine in bone remodeling. Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine 51 (3):579–90. doi: 10.1515/cclm-2012-0605.
  • Van Schoor, N. M., M. Visser, S. M. Pluijm, N. Kuchuk, J. H. Smit, and P. Lips. 2008. Vitamin D deficiency as a risk factor for osteoporotic fractures. Bone 42 (2):260–6. doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2007.11.002.
  • van Wijngaarden, J. P., E. L. Doets, A. Szczecińska, O. W. Souverein, M. E. Duffy, C. Dullemeijer, A. E. J. M. Cavelaars, B. Pietruszka, P. van’t Veer, A. Brzozowska, et al. 2013. Vitamin B12, folate, homocysteine, and bone health in adults and elderly people: A systematic review with metaanalyses. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism 2013:1–19. doi: 10.1155/2013/486186.
  • Vinnari, M., J. Montonen, T. Härkänen, and S. Männistö. 2009. Identifying vegetarians and their food consumption according to self-identification and operationalized definition in Finland. Public Health Nutrition 12 (04):481–8. doi: 10.1017/S1368980008002486.
  • Wang, Y. F., J. S. Chiu, M. H. Chuang, J. E. Chiu, and C. L. Lin. 2008. Bone mineral density of vegetarian and non-vegetarian adults in Taiwan. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 17 (1):101–6.
  • Warensjö, E., L. Byberg, H. Melhus, R. Gedeborg, H. Mallmin, A. Wolk, and K. Michaëlsson. 2011. Dietary calcium intake and risk of fracture and osteoporosis: Prospective longitudinal cohort study. BMJ (Clinical Research ed.) 342 (5):d1473 doi: 10.1136/bmj.d1473.
  • Watkins, B. A., Y. Li, H. E. Lippman, and S. Feng. 2003. Modulatory effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on osteoblast function and bone metabolism. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes & Essential Fatty Acids 68 (6):387–98. doi: 10.1016/S0952-3278(03)00063-2.
  • Watkins, B. A., H. E. Lippman, L. L. Bouteiller, Y. Li, and M. F. Seifert. 2001. Bioactive fatty acids: Role in bone biology and bone cell function. Progress in Lipid Research 40 (1-2):125–48. doi: 10.1016/S0163-7827(00)00016-3.
  • Wattanapenpaiboon, N., W. Lukito, M. L. Wahlqvist, and B. J. Strauss. 2003. Dietary carotenoid intake as a predictor of bone mineral density. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 12 (4):467–73.
  • Weaver, C. M. 2013. Potassium and health. Advances in Nutrition (Nutrition) 4 (3):368S–77. doi: 10.3945/an.112.003533.
  • Weikert, C., I. Trefflich, J. Menzel, R. Obeid, A. Longree, J. Dierkes, K. Meyer, I. Herter-Aeberli, K. Mai, and G. I. Stangl. 2020. Vitamin and mineral status in a vegan diet. Deutsches Arzteblatt International 117 (35-36):575–82. doi: 10.3238/arztebl.2020.0575.
  • Weiss, L. A., E. Barrett-Connor, and D. von Muhlen. 2005. Ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids and bone mineral density in older adults: The Rancho Bernardo Study. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 81 (4):934–8. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/81.4.934.
  • Welch, A., S. Bingham, J. Camus, N. Dalzell, J. Reeve, N. Day, and K. T. Khaw. 2005. Calcaneum broadband ultrasound attenuation relates to vegetarian and omnivorous diets differently in men and women: An observation from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer in Norfolk (EPIC-Norfolk) population study. Osteoporosis International: A Journal Established as Result of Cooperation between the European Foundation for Osteoporosis and the National Osteoporosis Foundation of the USA 16 (6):590–6. doi: 10.1007/s00198-004-1721-3.
  • Whitford, G. M. 1994. Intake and metabolism of fluoride. Advances in Dental Research 8 (1):5–14. doi: 10.1177/08959374940080011001.
  • Wood, A. D., and H. M. Macdonald. 2010. Interactions of Dietary Patterns, Systemic Inflammation, and Bone Health. In Nutritional influences on bone health, ed P. Burckhardt, B. Dawson-Hughes and C. Weaver, 135–43. London: Springer.
  • Wu, W. J., M. S. Kim, and B. Y. Ahn. 2015. The inhibitory effect of vitamin K on RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption. Food & Function 6 (10):3351–8. doi: 10.1039/C5FO00544B.
  • Xie, L., B. Wang, X. Cui, Q. Tang, W. Cai, and X. Shen. 2019. Young adult vegetarians in Shanghai have comparable bone health to omnivores despite lower serum 25(OH) vitamin D in vegans: A cross-sectional study. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 28 (2):383–8. doi: 10.6133/apjcn.201906_28(2).0021.
  • Yang, Q., and G.-W. He. 2019. Imbalance of homocysteine and H2S: significance, mechanisms, and therapeutic promise in vascular injury. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2019:1–11. doi: 10.1155/2019/7629673.
  • Yılmaz, N., and E. Eren. 2009. Homocysteine oxidative stress and relation to bone mineral density in post-menopausal osteoporosis. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research 21 (4-5):353–7. doi: 10.1007/BF03324927.
  • Zhu, K., A. Devine, and R. L. Prince. 2009. The effects of high potassium consumption on bone mineral density in a prospective cohort study of elderly postmenopausal women. Osteoporosis International: A Journal Established as Result of Cooperation between the European Foundation for Osteoporosis and the National Osteoporosis Foundation of the USA 20 (2):335–40. doi: 10.1007/s00198-008-0666-3.
  • Zhubi-Bakija, F., G. Bajraktari, I. Bytyçi, D. P. Mikhailidis, M. Y. Henein, G. Latkovskis, Z. Rexhaj, E. Zhubi, and M. Banach. and International Lipid Expert Panel (ILEP). 2021. The impact of type of dietary protein, animal versus vegetable, in modifying cardiometabolic risk factors: A position paper from the International Lipid Expert Panel (ILEP). Clinical Nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland) 40 (1):255–76. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2020.05.017.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.