435
Views
413
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

The chemistry and biological significance of saponins in foods and feedingstuffs

, , &
Pages 27-135 | Published online: 29 Sep 2009

References

  • Jeger , O. 1950 . Über die Konstitution der Triterpene . Fortschr. Chem. Org. Naturst. (Wien) , 7 : 1
  • Mahato , S. B. , Ganguly , A. N. and Sahu , N. P. 1982 . Steroid saponins . Phytochemistry , 21 : 959
  • Das , M. C. and Mahato , S. B. 1983 . Triterpenoids . Phytochemistry , 22 : 1071
  • Jadhav , S. J. , Sharma , R. P. and Salunkhe , D. K. 1981 . Naturally occurring toxic alkaloids in foods . Crit. Rev. Toxicol. , 11 : 21
  • Heftmann , E. 1967 . Biochemistry of steroidal saponins and glycoalkaloids . Lloydia , 30 : 209
  • Osman , S. F. 1979 . “ Glycoalkaloids of the Solanaceae ” . In Recent Advances in Phytochemistry , Edited by: Swain , T. and Klieman , R. Vol. 14 , 75 New York : Plenum Press .
  • Hiller , K. , Keipert , M. and Linzer , B. 1966 . Triterpensaponine . Pharmazie , 21 : 713
  • Basu , N. and Rastogi , R. P. 1967 . Triterpenoid saponins and sapogenins . Phytochemistry , 6 : 1249
  • Varshney , I. P. 1969 . Leguminoseae saponins . Indian J. Chem. , 7 : 446
  • Woitke , H‐D. , Kayser , J‐P. and Hiller , K. 1970 . Fortschritte in der Erforschung der Triterpensaponine, Zeil 1 . Pharmazie , 25 : 133
  • Woitke , H‐D. , Kayser , J‐P. and Hiller , K. 1970 . Fortschritte in der Erforschung der Triterpensaponine, Zeil 2 . Pharmazie , 25 : 213
  • Tschesche , R. and Wulff , G. 1973 . Chemie und Biologie der Saponine . Chem. Org. Naturst. , 30 : 461
  • Agarwal , S. K. and Rastogi , R. P. 1974 . Triterpene saponins and their genins . Phytochemistry , 13 : 2623
  • Hiller , K. and Voigt , G. 1977 . Neue Ergebnisse in der Erforschung der Triterpensaponine . Pharmazie , 32 : 365
  • Chandel , R. S. and Rastogi , R. P. 1980 . Triterpenoid saponins and sapogenins, 1973 to 1978 . Phytochemistry , 19 : 1889
  • Adler , C. and Hiller , K. 1985 . Bisdesmodische Triterpensaponine . Pharmazie , 40 : 676
  • Bondi , A. , Birk , Y. and Gestetner , B. 1973 . “ Forage saponins ” . In Chemistry and Biochemistry of Herbage , Edited by: Butler , G. W. and Bailey , R. W. 511 New York : Academic Press .
  • Birk , Y. and Peri , I. 1980 . “ Saponins ” . In Toxic Constituents of Plant Foodstuffs , 2nd ed. , Edited by: Liener , I. E. 161 New York : Academic Press .
  • Oakenfull , D. 1981 . Saponins in food — a review . Food Chem. , 7 : 19
  • Heftmann , E. 1968 . Biosynthesis of plant steroids . Lloydia , 31 : 293
  • Ruzicka , L. 1953 . The isoprene rule and the biogenesis of terpenic compounds . Experientia , 9 : 235
  • Corey , E. J. and Ortiz de Montellano , P. R. 1967 . Enzymic synthesis of β‐amyrin from 2,3‐oxidosqualene . J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 89 : 3362
  • Arigoni , D. 1958 . Zur Biogeneze pentazyklischer Triterpene in einer höheren Pflanze . Experientia , 14 : 153
  • Nowacki , E. , Jurzysta , M. and Dietrych‐Szostak , D. 1976 . Zur Biosynthese der Medicagensäure in keimenden Luzernesamen . Biochem. Physiol. Pftanz. , 169 : 183
  • Peri , I. , Mor , If. , Heftmann , E. , Bondi , A. and Tencer , Y. 1979 . Biosynthesis of triterpenoid sapogenols in soybean and alfalfa seedlings . Phytochemistry , 18 : 1671
  • Kintia , P. K. , Wojciechowski , Z. A. and Kasprzyk , Z. 1974 . Biosynthesis of oleanolic acid glycosides from 2‐14C‐mevalonate in germinating seeds of Calendula officinalis L. . Bull. Acad. Pol. Sci. Ser. Sci. Biol. , 22 : 73
  • Wojciechowski , Z. A. 1975 . Biosynthesis of oleanolic acid glycosides by sub‐cellular fractions of Calendula officinalis seedlings . Phytochemistry , 14 : 1749
  • Auguscinska , E. , Szakiel , A. , Wilkomirski , B. and Kasprzyk , Z. 1985 . The metabolism of (3‐3H) oleanolic acid‐3‐O‐mono (14C) glucoside in isolated cells from Calendula officinalis leaves . Phytochemistry , 24 : 1713
  • Janiszowska , W. and Kasprzyk , Z. 1974 . Transport of glycosides of oleanolic acid from shoot to root in Calendula officinalis . Acta Biochim. Pol , 21 : 415
  • Knapp , F. F. , Axel , R. T. and Nicholas , H. J. 1969 . Sterol biosynthesis in sub‐cellular particles of higher plants . Plant Physiol. , 44 : 442
  • Capstack , E. Jr. , Rosin , N. , Blondin , G. A. and Nes , W. R. 1965 . Squalene in Pisum sativum. Its cyclization to β‐amyrin and labelling pattern . J. Biol. Chem. , 240 : 3258
  • Fässler , L. , Lichtenthaler , H. K. , Gruiz , K. and Biacs , P. A. 1984 . Accumulation of saponins and sterols in Avena seedlings under high‐ and low‐light growth conditions . Dev. Plant Biol. , 9 : 225
  • Fuggersberger‐Heinz , R. and Franz , G. 1984 . Formation of glycyrrhizinic acid in Glycyrrhiza glabra var. typica . Plant Med. , 50 : 409
  • Eltayeb , E. A. and Roddick , J. G. 1984 . Changes in the alkaloid content of developing fruits of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill). I. Analysis of cultivars and mutants with differing ripening characteristics . J. Exp. Bot. , 35 : 252
  • Ali , A. and Schlösser , E. 1977 . Tomatingehalt verschiedener Pflanzenteile von Tomaten in Abhängigkeit von Entwicklungszustand . Angew. Botanik , 51 : 143
  • Roddick , J. G. 1982 . Distribution of steroidal glycoalkaloids in reciprocal grafts of Solanum tuberosum L. and Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. . Experientia , 38 : 460
  • Eltayeb , E. A. and Roddick , J. G. 1985 . Biosynthesis and degradation of ‐tomatine in developing tomato fruits . Phytochemistry , 24 : 253
  • Czygan , F. C. and Willuhn , G. 1967 . Untersuchungen über Gehaltsänderungen der Lipochrome und Stero‐idalkaloide in Rot‐ und Gelbfruchtigen Tomaten (Lycopersicon esculentum L.). Verschiedener Reifegrade . Planta Med. , 15 : 413
  • Heftmann , E. and Schwimmer , S. 1972 . Degradation of tomatine to 3β‐hydroxy‐5α‐pregn‐16‐en‐20‐one by ripe tomatoes . Phytochemistry , 11 : 2783
  • Zander , J. M. and Wigfield , D. C. 1970 . The biosynthesis of cucurbitacin B . J. Chem. Soc. , : 1599
  • Kintia , P. K. , Wojciechowski , Z. A. and Kasprzyk , Z. 1974 . Biosynthesis and metabolism of cucurbitacins and sterols at early stages of development of Cucumis sativus L. plants . Acta Biochem. Pol. , 21 : 263
  • Cattel , L. , Balliano , G. , Caputo , O. and Viola , F. 1981 . Biosynthesis of cucurbitacins in Bryonia diqica seedlings . Planta Med. , 41 : 328
  • Caputo , O. , Delprino , L. , Viola , F. , Caramiello , R. and Balliano , G. 1983 . Biosynthesis of sterols and triterpenoids in tissue cultures of Cucurbita maxima . Planta Med. , 49 : 176
  • Balliano , G. , Caputo , O. , Viola , F. , Delprino , L. and Cattel , L. 1983 . The transformation of 10α‐cucurbita‐ 5,24‐dien‐3β‐ol into cucurbitacin C by seedlings of Cucumis sativus . Phytochemistry , 22 : 909
  • Balliano , G. , Caputo , O. , Viola , F. , Delprino , L. and Cattel , L. 1983 . Cyclization of squalene‐2,3‐epoxide to 10‐cucurbita‐5,24‐dien‐3‐ol by microsomes from Cucurbita maxima seedlings . Phytochemistry , 22 : 915
  • 1985 . FAO Production Yearbook , Volume 38 , Rome : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations .
  • Kitagawa , I. , Saito , M. , Taniyama , T. and Yoshikawa , M. 1985 . Structure of soyasaponin A,, a bisdesmoside of soyasapogenol A from soybean, the seeds of Glycine max. Merrill . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 33 : 1069
  • Kitagawa , I. , Saito , M. , Taniyama , T. and Yoshikawa , M. 1985 . Saponin and sapogenol. XXXVIII. Structure of soyasaponin A2 a bisdesmoside of soyasapogenol A, from soybean, the seeds of Glycine max Merrill . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 33 : 598
  • Muramatsu , S. 1923 . Soaps in soybeans . J. Chem. Soc. Jpn. , 44 : 1035
  • Muramatsu , S. 1928 . Some special constituents in the soybean . Mem. Publ. Morioka Agric. Coll. , : 1
  • Sumiki , T. 1929 . Studies on the saponin of soybean. I . Bull. Agric. Chem. Soc. Jpn. , 5 : 27
  • Walz , E. 1931 . Isoflavones and saponin‐glucosides in Soja hispida . Liebigs Annalen Chem. , 489 : 118
  • Hattori , K. , Ogimura , Y. and Okumura , M. 1933 . Soybean saponins . J. Hyg. Chem. Soc. Jpn. , 5 : 313
  • Okano , K. and Ihara , I. 1933 . Two types of soybean saponins . J. Agric. Chem. Soc. Jpn. , 9 : 1249
  • Burrell , R. C. and Walter , E. D. 1935 . A saponin from the soybean . J. Biol. Chem. , 108 : 55
  • Miyasaka , M. 1937 . Ober die Aglykone des Sojasaponins . J. Pharm. Soc. Jpn. , 57 : 464
  • Nozoye , T. and Katsura , S. 1937 . Soybean sapogenins . J. Chem. Soc. Jpn. , 58 : 570
  • Ochiai , E. , Tsuda , K. and Kitagawa , S. 1937 . Soybean saponins. I . Chem. Ber. , 70B : 2083
  • Ochiai , E. , Tsuda , K. and Kitagawa , S. 1937 . Selenium dehydrogenation of soya sapogenol B. II. Soybean saponins . Chem. Ber. , 70B : 2093
  • Tsuda , K. and Kitagawa , S. 1938 . Soybean saponins. III . Chem. Ber. , 71B : 790
  • Tsuda , K. and Ichikawa , Z. 1939 . Soybean saponins. V . Chem. Ber. , 72B : 716
  • Meyer , A. , Jeger , O. and Ruzicha , L. 1950 . Zur Kenntnis der Triterpene. Zur Konstitution der Sojasapogenole C und A . Helv. Chim. Acta , 33 : 672
  • Meyer , A. , Jeger , O. and Ruzicka , L. 1950 . Zur Kenntnis der Triterpene. Zur Konstitution der Sojasapogenole D und B . Helv. Chim. Acta , 33 : 687
  • Cainelli , G. , Britt , J. J. , Arigoni , D. and Jeger , O. 1958 . Zur Kenntnis der Triterpene. Zur Konstitution der Sojasapogenole A, B, C und D . Helv. Chim. Acta , 41 : 2053
  • Smith , H. M. , Smith , J. M. and Spring , F. S. 1958 . The triterpenoids. LVI. The chemistry of soyasapogenols A, B and C. . Tetrahedron , 4 : 111
  • Willner , D. , Gestetner , B. , Lavie , D. , Birk , Y. and Bondi , A. 1964 . Soyabean saponins. V. Soyasapogenol E . J. Chem. Soc. , : 5885
  • Kitagawa , I. , Yoshikawa , M. , Wang , H. K. , Saito , M. , Tosirusuk , V. , Fujiwara , T. and Tomita , K‐I. 1982 . Revised structures of soyasapogenols A, B and E, oleanene‐sapogenols from soybean. Structures of soyasaponins I, II and III . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 30 : 2294
  • Jurzysta , M. 1982 . “ Badania nad saponinami krajowych populacji lucerny mieszancowej (Medicago media Pers.) ” . In Wydawnictwa IUNG Seria R (170) 64 Pulway
  • Jurzysta , M. Arising artefacts during hydrolysis of soyasaponins . Proc., 16th Meet. Biochem. Soc. Poland . pp. 285
  • Jurzysta , M. Transformation of soyasapogenol B into soyasapogenols C., D, and F under acidic conditions . 14th Int. Symp. Chem. Nat. Prod. pp. 127
  • Ireland , P. A. and Dziedzic , S. Z. 1985 . Analysis of soybean sapogenins by high performance liquid chromatography . J. Chromatogr. , 325 : 275
  • Price , K. R. , Fenwick , G. R. and Jurzysta , M. 1986 . Sapogenols‐separation, analysis and interconversions . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 37 : 1027
  • Gestetner , B. , Birk , Y. and Bondi , A. 1966 . Soyabean saponins. VI. Composition of carbohydrate and aglycone moieties of soyabean saponin extract and of its fractions . Phytochemistry , 5 : 799
  • Kitagawa , I. , Yoshikawa , M. and Yosioka , I. 1974 . Structures of three soybean saponins, soyasaponins I, II, and III . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 22 : 3010
  • Kitagawa , I. , Yoshikawa , M. and Yosioka , I. 1976 . Saponin and sapogenol. XIII. Structures of three soybean saponins. Soyasaponin I, soyasaponin II, and soyasaponin III . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 24 : 121
  • Burrows , J. , Price , K. R. and Fenwick , G. R. in press . Soyasaponin IV, a monodesmosidic saponin isolated from soyabean (Glycine max) . Phytochemistry ,
  • Yoshikawa , M. , Wang , H. K. , Kayakiri , H. , Taniyama , T. and Kitagawa , I. 1985 . Saponin and sapogenol. XL. Structure of sophoraflavoside I, a bisdesmoside of sapogenol B, from Sophorae radix the root of Sophora flavescens Aiton . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 33 : 4267
  • Kitagawa , I. , Yoshikawa , M. , Hayashi , T. and Taniyama , T. 1984 . Quantitative determination of soyasaponins in soybeans of various origins and soybean products by means of high performance liquid chro‐matography . Yakugaku Zasshi , 104 : 275
  • Price , K. R. , Curl , C. L. and Fenwick , G. R. in press . The saponin content and sapogenol composition of the seed of thirteen varieties of legume . J. Sci. Food Agric ,
  • Ireland , P. A. and Dziedzic , S. Z. in press . Saponins and sapogenins of chick pea, haricot bean and red kidney bean . Food Chem. ,
  • Curl, C. L., Price, K. R. and Fenwick, G. R. unpublished observations.
  • Tharib , S. M. and Veitch , G. B. A. 1984 . Lipids and saponins of Phaseolus coccineus . Int. J. Crude Drug Res. , 22 : 1
  • Miyamichi , E. and Onishi , S. 1932 . Über die Saponin‐Glukoside in Adzuki‐bohnen (Phaseolus radiatus L. var. aureus Prain) . J. Pharm. Soc. Jpn. , 52 : 168
  • Chirva , V. Ya. , Kretsu , L. G. and Kintya , P. K. 1970 . Triterpene glycosides of Leguminosae. I. Chemical characteristics of phaseoloside E . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , 6 : 377
  • Chirva , V. Ya. , Kretsu , L. G. and Kintya , P. K. 1970 . Triterpene glycosides of beans. II. Structure of a major glycoside of Phaseolus vulgaris . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , 6 : 559
  • Chirva , V. Ya. , Kretsu , L. G. and Kintya , P. K. 1970 . Triterpene glycosides of beans. III. Structure of a minor glycoside of Phaseolus vulgaris . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , 6 : 563
  • Lazurevskii , G. V. , Chirva , V. Ya. , Kintya , P. K. and Kretsu , L. G. 1971 . Triterpene glycosides from Phaseolus vulgaris . Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR , 199 : 226
  • Livingstone , A. L. , Knuckles , B. E. , Edwards , R. H. , deFremery , D. , Miller , R. E. and Kohler , G. O. 1979 . Distribution of saponin in alfalfa protein recovery systems . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 27 : 362
  • Gaither , D. H. and Brown , J. W. 1973 . Saponins: characterization and some properties of saponin from Pisum arvense seed . J. Term. Acad. Sci. , 48 : 91
  • Price , K. R. and Fenwick , G. R. 1984 . Soyasaponin I: a compound possessing undesirable taste characteristics isolated from the dried pea (Pisum sativum L.) . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 35 : 887
  • Shimazaki , Y. and Furuya , M. 1975 . Isolation of a naturally occuring inhibitor for dark Pfr reversion from etiolated Pisum epicotyls . Plant Cell Physiol. , 16 : 623
  • Yakota , T. , Baka , J. , Konomi , K. , Shimazaki , Y. , Takahashi , N. and Furuya , M. 1982 . Identification of a triterpenoid saponin in etiolated pea shoots as phytochrome killer . Plant Cell Physiol. , 23 : 265
  • Konomi , K. , Furuya , M. , Yamamoto , K. T. , Yokota , T. and Takahashi , N. 1982 . Effects of a triterpenoid saponin in spectral properties of undegraded pea phytochrome . Plant Physiol. , 70 : 307
  • Kitagawa , I. , Wang , H. K. , Saito , M. and Yoshikawa , M. 1983 . Saponin and sapogenol. XXXI. Chemical constituents of the seeds of Vigna angularis (Willd.) Ohwi et Ohashi. I. Triterpenoidal sapogenols and 3‐furanmethanol‐β‐D‐glucopyranoside . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 31 : 664
  • Kitagawa , I. , Wang , H. K. , Saito , M. and Yoshikawa , M. 1983 . Saponin and sapogenol. XXXII. Chemical constituents of the seeds of Vigna angularis (Willd.) Ohwi et Ohashi, II. Azukisaponins I, II, III, and IV . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 31 : 674
  • Kitagawa , I. , Wang , H. K. , Saito , M. and Yoshikawa , M. 1983 . Saponin and sapogenol. XXXIII. Chemical consitutents of the seeds of Vigna angularis (Willd.) Ohwi et Ohashi, III. Azukisaponins V and VI. . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 31 : 683
  • Khokhar , S. and Chauhan , B. M. 1986 . Antinutritional factors in moth bean (Vigna aconitifolia). Varietal differences and effects of methods of domestic processing and cooking . J. Food Sci. , 51 : 591
  • Boas , F. and Steuda , R. 1936 . Über neue Saponinvorkommen . Angew. Bot. , 18 : 16
  • Mohr , W. 1953 . Uber die Qualitätsbeeinflussung von Hafererzeugnissen. III. Vorbericht uber einen wasserlöslichen Bitterstoff aus Hafer . Dtsch. Lebensm. Rundsch. , 49 : 127
  • Hottenroth , B. and Mohr , W. 1956 . Über die Quantitätsbeeinflussung von Hafererzeugnissen. VI. Untersu‐chungen fiber den wasserlöslichen Bitterstoff aus Hafer . Dtsch. Lebensm. Rundsch. , 52 : 225
  • Tschesche , R. and Schmidt , W. 1966 . Zwei neue Saponine der oberirdischen Teile des Hafers (Avena sativa) mit Nuatigenin als Aglykon . Z. Naturforsch. , 21B : 896
  • Tschesche , R. and Richert , K. H. 1964 . Über Saponine der Spirostanolreihe. XI. Nuatigenin, ein Cholegeninanalogen des Pflanzenreiches . Tetrahedron , 20 : 387
  • Tschesche , R. , Tauscher , M. , Fehlhaber , H‐W. and Wulff , G. 1969 . Avenacosid A, ein bisdesmosidisches Steroidsaponin axis Avena sativa . Chem. Ber. , 102 : 2072
  • Tschesche , R. and Lauven , P. 1971 . Avenacosid B, ein zweites bisdesmosidisches Steroidsaponin aus Avena sativa . Chem. Ber. , 104 : 3549
  • Lüning , H. U. and Schlosser , E. 1975 . Role of saponins in antifungal resistance. V. Enzymatic activation of avenacosides . Z. Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz , 82 : 699
  • Lüning , H. U. , Wayaki , B. G. and Schlosser , E. 1978 . Role of saponins in antifungal resistance. VIII. Interactions Avena sativa — Fusarium avenaceum . Phytopathol. Z. , 92 : 338
  • Tschesche , R. and Wiemann , W. 1977 . Desglucoavenacosid A und B, biologisch active Nuatigeninglykosid . Chem. Ber. , 110 : 2416
  • Grünweller , S. and Kesselmeier , J. 1985 . Characterization of a membrane‐bound α‐glucosidase responsible for the activation of oat leaf saponins . Phytochemistry , 24 : 1941
  • Kesselmeier , J. and Urban , B. 1983 . Subcellular localization of saponins in green and etiolated leaves and green protoplasts of oat (Avena sativa L.) . Protoplasma , 114 : 133
  • Urban , B. , Laudenbach , U. and Kesselmeier , J. 1983 . Saponin distribution in the etiolated leaf tissue and subcellular localization of steroidal saponins in etiolated protoplasts of oat (Avena sativa L.) . Protoplasma , 118 : 121
  • Goodwin , R. H. and Pollock , B. M. 1954 . Studies on root. I. Properties and distribution of fluorescent constitutents in Avena roots . Am. J. Bot. , 41 : 516
  • Turner , E. M. 1956 . A fungicide produced by oats and its relation to resistance of oats to “take‐all”; . Ann. Appl. Biol. , 44 : 200
  • Turner , E. M. C. 1961 . An enzymic basis for pathogenic specificity in Ophiobolus graminis . J. Exp. Bot. , 12 : 169
  • Maize) , J. V. , Burkhardt , H. J. and Mitchell , H. K. 1964 . Avenacin, an antimicrobial substance isolated from Avena sativa. I. Isolation and antimicrobial activity . Biochemistry , 3 : 424
  • Tschesche , R. , Chandra Jha , H. and Wulff , G. 1973 . Über Triterpene. XXIX. Zur Struktur des Avenacins . Tetrahedron , 29 : 629
  • Burkhardt , H. J. , Maizel , J. V. and Mitchell , H. K. 1964 . Avenacin, an antimicrobial substance isolated from Avena sativa. II. Structure . Biochemistry , 3 : 426
  • Crombie , L. , Crombie , W. M. L. and Whiting , D. A. 1984 . Isolation of avenacins A‐l, A‐2, B‐l and B‐2 from oat roots. Structures of their “aglycones”; — the avenestergenins . Chem. Commun. , : 244
  • Crombie , L. , Crombie , W. M. L. and Whiting , D. A. 1984 . Structures of the four avenacins oat root resistance factors to “take‐all”; disease . Chem. Commun. , : 246
  • Crombie , W. M. L. and Crombie , L. 1986 . Distribution of avenacins A‐1, A‐2, B‐1 and B‐2 in oat roots: their fungicidal activity towards ‘take‐all’ fungus . Phytochemistry , 25 : 2069
  • Crombie , W. M. L. , Crombie , L. , Green , J. B. and Lucas , J. A. 1986 . Pathogenecity of ‘take‐all’ fungus to oats: its relationship to the concentration and detoxification of the four avenacins . Phytochemistry , 25 : 2075
  • Kuhn , R. , Löw , I. and Trischmann , H. 1955 . Die Konstitution des Solanins . Chem. Ber. , 88 : 1492
  • Kuhn , R. , Löw , I. and Trischmann , H. 1955 . Die Konstitution des α‐Chaconins . Chem. Ber. , 88 : 1690
  • Zitnak , A. 1961 . The occurrence and distribution of free alkaloid solanidine in Netted Gem potatoes . Can. J. Biochem. Physiol. , 39 : 1257
  • Maga , J. A. 1980 . Potato glycoalkaloids . Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. , 15 : 371
  • Prelog , V. and Jeger , O. 1953 . “ Solanum glycoalkaloids ” . In The Alkaloids , Edited by: Manske , R. H. F. and Holmes , H. L. Vol. 3 , 247 New York : Academic Press .
  • Schreiber , K. 1968 . “ Steroidal alkaloids: the Solanum group ” . In The Alkaloids , Edited by: Manske , R. H. F. Vol. 10 , 1 New York : Academic Press .
  • Kintia , P. K. and Shvets , S. A. 1985 . Melongoside L and melongoside M, steroidal saponins from Solanum melongena seeds . Phytochemistry , 24 : 197
  • Kintia , P. K. and Shvets , S. A. 1985 . Melongosides N, O and P. Steroidal saponins from seeds of Solanum melongena . Phytochemistry , 24 : 1567
  • Ripperger , H. , Schreiber , K. and Budzikiewicz , H. 1967 . Isolierung von Neochlorogenin und Paniculogenin aus Solanum paniculatum L . Chem. Ber. , 100 : 1741
  • Ripperger , H. and Schreiber , K. 1968 . Struktur von Paniculonin A und B. Zwei neuen Spirostanglykosiden aus Solanum paniculatum L . Chem. Ber. , 101 : 2450
  • Schreiber , K. and Ripperger , H. 1967 . Isolierung von Jurubin, Neochlorogenin and Paniculogenin aus Solanum torvum Swartz., Solanum‐Alkaloide. LXXXIV. Mitteilung . Kulturpflanze , 15 : 199
  • Mahmood , U. , Agrawal , P. K. and Thakur , R. S. 1985 . Torvonin‐A, a spirostane saponin from Solanum torvum leaves . Phytochemistry , 24 : 2456
  • Tschesche , R. and Gutwinski , H. 1975 . Capsicosid, ein bisdesmosidisches 22‐Hydroxyfurostanol‐Glycosid aus dem Samen von Capsicum anuum L . Chem. Berich. , 108 : 265
  • Chakravarty , A. K. , Saha , C. R. and Pakrashi , S. C. 1979 . New spirostane saponins and sapogenins from Solanum hispidum seeds . Phytochemistry , 18 : 902
  • Murakami , K. , Saijo , R. , Nohara , T. and Tomimatsu , T. 1981 . Studies on the constituents of Solanum plants. I. On the constituents of the stem parts of Solanum lyratum Thunb . Yakugaku Zasshi , 101 : 275
  • Murakami , K. , Ejima , H. , Takaishi , Y. , Takeda , Y. , Fujita , T. , Sato , A. , Nagayama , Y. and Nohara , T. 1985 . Studies on the constituents of Solanum plants. V. The contituents of S. lyratum Thunb . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 33 : 67
  • Yahara , S. , Murakami , N. , Yamasaki , M. , Hamada , T. , Kinjo , J‐E. and Nohara , T. 1985 . A furostanol glucuronide from Solanum lyratum . Phytochemistry , 24 : 2748
  • Fontaine , T. D. , Irving , G. W. Jr. , Ma , R. , Poole , J. B. and Doolittle , S. P. 1948 . Isolation and partial characterization of crystalline tomatine, an antibiotic agent from the tomato plant . Arch. Biochem. , 18 : 467
  • Sato , H. and Sakamura , S. 1973 . A bitter principle of tomato seeds. Isolation and structure of a new furostanol saponin . Agric. Biol. Chem. , 37 : 225
  • Smoczkiewiczowa , M. A. and Nitschke , D. 1976 . Badania nad saponinami w czosnku (Allium sativum) . Zesz. Nauk. Akad. Ekonom. Ser. 1 Poznan , 62 : 43
  • Nitschke , D. and Smoczkiewiczowa , M. A. 1976 . Saponiny w czosnka i cebuli . Zesz. Nauk. Akad. Ekonom. Ser. 1 Poznan. , 69 : 104
  • Smoczkiewiczowa , M. A. and Wieladek , H. 1978 . Proby stwierdzenia obecnosci saponin w Allium porrum . Zesz. Nauk. Akad. Ekonom. Ser. I Poznan , 73 : 44
  • Smoczkiewiczowa , M. A. , Nitschke , D. and Wieladek , H. Plants of the Species Allium (Onion, Garlic Leek) as Sources of Saponin Glycosides . Proc. Int. Congr. Commodity Sci. Nat. Res. , 407 1978
  • Smoczkiewiczowa , M. A. , Nitschke , D. and Wieladek , H. 1982 . Microdetermination of steroid and triterpene saponin glycosides in various plant materials. I. Allium plants . Mikrochim. Acta (Wien) , 2 : 43
  • Fenwick , G. R. and Hanley , A. B. 1985 . The genus Allium. II . Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. , 22 : 273
  • Kawano , K. , Sakai , K. , Sato , H. and Sakamura , A. 1975 . A bitter principle of asparagus: isolation and structure of furostanol saponin in asparagus storage root . Agric. Biol. Chem. , 39 : 1999
  • Kawano , K. , Sato , H. and Sakamura , S. 1977 . Isolation and structure of furostanol saponin in asparagus edible shoots . Agric. Biol. Chem. , 41 : 1
  • Sharma , S. C. , Chand , R. , Bhatti , B. S. and Sati , O. P. 1982 . New oligospirostanosides and oligofuros‐tanosides from Asparagus adscendens roots . Planta Med. , 46 : 48
  • Goryanu , G. M. , Krokhmalyuk , V. V. and Kintya , P. K. 1976 . Structure of glycosides of Asparagus officinalis. Structure of asparagosides A and B . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , : 400
  • 1976 . Chem. Abstr. , 85 : 90178w
  • Goryanu , G. M. and Kintya , P. K. 1976 . Steroidal saponins. XVII. Structure of asparagosides D and G . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , : 762
  • 1977 . Chem. Abstr. , 87 : 53516a
  • Goryanu , G. M. , Krokhmalyuk , V. V. , Kintya , P. K. and Glyzin , V. I. 1976 . Medicinal asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.) as a source of steroidal glycosides . Farmatsiya , 25 : 66
  • 1976 . Chem. Abstr. , 85 : 156482z
  • Lazur'evskii , G. V. , Goryanu , G. M. and Kintya , P. K. 1976 . Dokl. Akad. Nauk. SSSR , 231 : 1479
  • 1977 . Chem. Abstr. , 86 : 68399t
  • Goryanu , G. M. and Kintya , P. K. 1977 . Steroid glycosides from Asparagus officinalis. Asparagosides F and H . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , : 810
  • 1978 . Chem. Abstr. , 88 : 136901u
  • Goryanu , G. M. , Krokhmalyuk , V. V. and Kintya , P. K. 1976 . Steroid glycosides. XVI. Structure of asparagosides C and E from Asparagus officinalis . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , : 823
  • 1977 . Chem Abstr. , 86 : 103064d
  • Sharma , S. C. and Sharma , H. C. 1984 . Oligofuro‐ and spiro‐stanosides of Asparagus adscendens . Phyto‐chemistry , 23 : 645
  • Sharma , S. C. , Sati , O. P. and Chand , R. 1983 . Steroidal saponins from Asparagus curillus fruits . Planta Med. , 47 : 117
  • Sharma , S. C. , Sati , O. P. and Chand , R. 1982 . Steroidal constituents of different parts of Asparagus currillus Buch‐Ham . Curr. Sci. , 51 : 280
  • Sati , O. P. and Shama , S. C. 1985 . New steroidal glycosides from Asparagus curillus (roots) . Pharmazie , 40 : 417
  • Davila , C. A. and Martin Danizo , F. 1958 . Sapogeninas de Asparagus acutifolius L., A. stipularis Forsk., Agave americana L., Yucca gloriosa L. y Ruscus aculeatus L . Ann. Fisica Quimica , 854 : 697
  • Kar , D. K. and Sen , S. 1985 . Sarsasapogenin in callus culture of Asparagus racemosus . Curr. Sci. , 54 : 585
  • Sati , O. P. and Pant , G. 1985 . New furostanol glycosides from Asparagus plumosus leaves . J. Nat. Prod. , 48 : 390
  • Konishi , T. and Shoji , J. 1979 . On the structures of furostanol oligosides of Asparagus cochinchinensis (Loureio) Merrill . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 27 : 3086
  • Weil , L. 1901 . Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Saponinsubstanzen und ihrer Verbreitung . Arch. Pharm. Ber. Dtsch. Pharm. Ges. , 239 : 363
  • Halberkann , J. 1909 . Über Assamin, das neutrale Saponin der Assamteesamen . Biochem. Z. , 19 : 310
  • Aoyama , S. 1931 . Über das in de Samen von Thea sinensis L. enthaltene saponin (vergleich der Camillia‐, Sasanqua‐ und Thea‐saponine) . Yakugaku Zasshi , 51 : 367
  • Ishidate , M. and Ueda , Y. 1952 . Seed saponin of Thea sinensis L. I. Thea‐saponin and Thea‐prosapogenol . Yakugaku Zasshi , 72 : 1523
  • Ueda , Y. 1952 . Seed saponin of Thea sinensis L. II. Constituents of Thea‐saponin . Yakugaku Zasshi , 72 : 1525
  • Ueda , Y. 1954 . Samen Saponin von Thea sinensis L. III. Über die Konstitution des Thea‐sapogenols . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 2 : 175
  • Yosioka , I. , Nishimura , T. , Matsuda , A. and Kitagawa , I. 1970 . Seed sapogenols of Thea sinensis L. I. Barringtogenol C (= Theasapogenol B) . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 18 : 1610
  • Yosioka , I. , Nishimura , T. , Matsuda , A. and Kitagawa , I. 1970 . Seed sapogenols of Thea sinensis L. II. Theasapogenol A . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 18 : 1621
  • Yosioka , I. , Matsuda , A. , Nishimura , T. and Kitagawa , I. 1966 . Structure of theasapogenol E . Chem. Ind. , : 2202
  • Itokawa , H. , Sawada , N. and Murakami , T. 1969 . The structures of camelliagenin A, B and C obtained from Camellia japonica L . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 17 : 474
  • Ito , S. , Kodama , M. and Konoike , M. 1967 . Structure of camelliagenins . Tetrahedron Lett. , : 591
  • Yosioka , I. , Nishimura , T. , Watani , N. and Kitagawa , I. 1967 . On the unexpected identity of theasapogenol D ( = camelliagenin A), a minor sapogenol of tea seeds, with dihydropriverogenin A . Tetrahedron Lett. , : 5343
  • deSilva , U. L. L. and Roberts , G. R. 1972 . Products from tea seeds. II. Extraction and properties of saponins . Tea Q. , 43 : 91
  • Tschcsche , R. , Weber , A. and Wulff , G. 1969 . Über die Struktur des “Theasaponins”;, eines Gemisches von Saponinen aus Thea sinensis L. mit stark antiexsudativer Wirksamkeit . Leibigs Annalen Chem. , 721 : 209
  • Sokolski , I. N. , Zinkevich , E. P. , Bankovsky , A. I. and Molodozhnikov , M. M. 1972 . On the structure of tea saponin . Chim. Prir. Soedin. , 5 : 654
  • Vogel , G. , Marek , M‐L. and Oertner , R. 1968 . Zur Pharmakologie des Teesamen‐saponins, eines Saponingemisches aus Thea sinensis L . Arzneim. Forsch. , 18 : 1466
  • Hashizume , A. 1973 . The component sapogenins and sugars of the saponin from the leaf of Thea sinensis L . Nippon Nogei Kagaku Kaishi , 47 : 237
  • Hayashibara Biochemical Laboratories . Glycosyltheasaponins as a New Drink Material . Japanense Patent 59,224,688 . 1984 .
  • Dieckert , J. W. and Morris , N. J. 1958 . Bitter principles of the peanut. Isolation, general properties and distribution in the seed . Agric. Food Chem. , 6 : 930
  • Dieckert , J. W. , Morris , N. J. and Mason , A. F. 1959 . Saponins of the peanut: isolation of some peanut sapogenins and their comparison with the soya sapogenols by glass paper chromatography . Arch. Biochem. Biophys. , 82 : 220
  • Matsura , S. , Tanak , T. , Iinuma , M. , Tanaka , T. and Himuro , N. 1983 . Constituents of useful plants. IX. Constituents of Arachis hypogaea L . Yakugaku Zasshi , 103 : 997
  • Rao , V. , Rao , P. S. , Tomimori , T. and Kizu , H. 1985 . Soyasaponin I from the roots of Arachis hypogaea . Planta Med. , 51 : 71
  • Kobert , R. 1914 . Die Spinate als Arzneinahrungsmittel . Brauer Beitr. Klinik Tuberkulose , 31 : 481
  • Kofler , L. 1931 . Über die Wirkungen der Saponine im Spinat . Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. , 44 : 852
  • Dafert , O. 1930 . Über das Saponin des Spinates . Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch. , 60 : 408
  • Dafert , O. , Bauer , F. , Bauer , M. , Capesius , V. and Greifinger , S. 1934 . Über das Saponin des Spinates . Sci. Pharmacol. , 5 : 61
  • Tschesche , R. , Rehkämper , H. and Wulff , G. 1969 . Über die Saponine des Spinates (Spinacia oleracea L.) . Leibigs Ann. Chem. , 726 : 125
  • Rehm , S. , Enslin , P. R. , Meeuse , A. D. J. and Wessels , J. H. 1957 . Bitter principles of the Cucurbitaceae. VII. The distribution of bitter principles in this plant family . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 8 : 679
  • Guha , J. and Sen , S. P. 1975 . The cucurbitacins — a review . Plant Biochem. J. , 2 : 12
  • Rehm , S. 1985 . Pflanzeneigene Giftstoffe in Gemüse, das Beispiel der Cucurbitacine . Der Tropenlandwirt Zeitschr. Landwirtsch. Tropen Subtropen , 86 : 99
  • Rehm , S. 1960 . Die Bitterstoffe der Cucurbitaceen . Ergeb. Biol. , 22 : 108
  • Metcalf , R. L. , Metcalf , R. A. and Rhodes , A. M. 1980 . Cucurbitacins as kairomones for diabroticite beetles . Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. , 77 : 3769
  • Kintya , P. K. , Isaeva , N. E. , Chirva , V. Ya. and Lazur'evskii , G. V. 1972 . Bitter substances in cucumbers. I. Partial structure of cucurbitaside E . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , : 306
  • 1973 . Chem. Abstr. , 78 : 2008t
  • Hutt , T. F. and Herrington , M. E. 1985 . The determination of bitter principles in zucchinis . J. Sci. Food Agric , 36 : 1107
  • Rauwald , H‐W. , Sauter , M. and Schilcher , H. 1985 . A 24β‐ethyl‐?7‐steryl glucopyranoside from Cucurbita pepo seeds . Phylochemistry , 24 : 2746
  • Van der Haar , A. W. 1927 . Untersuchungen uber die Saponine und verwandte Körper . Reel. Trav. Chim. Pays Bas , 46 : 775
  • Wagner , J. and Sternkopf , G. 1958 . Chemische und physiologische Untersuchungen über das Saponin der Zuckerrübe . Nahrung , 2 : 388
  • Marsh , C. A. and Levvy , G. A. 1956 . Glucuronide metabolism in plants. III. Triterpene glucuronides . Biochem. J. , 63 : 9
  • Bauserman , H. M. and Hanzas , P. C. 1957 . Paper chromatography of sugar beet saponin compounds . J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. , 9 : 295
  • Kretsu , L. G. and Lazur'evskii , G. V. 1970 . Triterpenic glycosides of Beta vulgaris . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , 6 : 272
  • 1970 . Chem. Abstr. , 73 : 63200t
  • Chen , A. H. 1985 . Applications of the saponins of Dioscorea. I. Studies on the saponins of Dioscorea in Taiwan . Hua Hsueh , 43 : 79
  • Duke , J. A. 1985 . Handbook of Medical Herbs , Boca Raton, Fla. : CRC Press .
  • Wrolstad , R. E. and Struthers , B. 1971 . Polyvinylpyrrolidone column chromatography of strawberry, rhubarb and raspberry anthocyanins . J. Chromatogr. , 55 : 405
  • Wrolstad , R. E. and Heatherbell , D. A. 1974 . Identification of anthocyanins and distribution of flavonoids in tamarillo fruit (Cyphomandra betaceae (Cav.) Senat . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 25 : 1221
  • Yoon , K‐R. and Wrolsted , R. E. 1984 . Investigation of Marion blackberry, strawberry and plum fruit for the presence of saponins . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 32 : 691
  • Walter , E. D. , Van Atta , G. R. , Thompson , C. R. and Maclay , W. D. 1954 . Alfalfa saponin . J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 76 : 2271
  • Djerassi , C. , Thomas , D. B. , Livingstone , A. L. and Thompson , C. R. 1957 . The structure and stereochemistry of medicagenic acid . J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 79 : 5292
  • Livingstone , A. L. 1959 . Lucemic acid, a new triterpene from alfalfa . J. Org. Chem. , 24 : 1567
  • Berrang , B. , Davis , K. H. Jr. , Wall , M. E. , Hanson , C. H. and Pedersen , M. E. 1974 . Saponins of two alfalfa cultivars . Phytochemistry , 13 : 2253
  • Shany , S. , Birk , Y. , Gestetner , B. and Bondi , A. 1970 . Preparation, characterization and some properties of saponins from lucene tops and roots . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 21 : 131
  • Shany , S. , Gestetner , B. , Birk , J. and Bondi , A. 1970 . Effect of lucerne saponins on larval growth and their detoxification by various sterols . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 21 : 508
  • Shany , S. , Gestetner , B. , Birk , Y. , Bondi , A. and Kirson , I. 1972 . Isolation of hederagenin and the saponin from alfalfa . 1sr. J. Chem. , 10 : 881
  • West , L. G. 1979 . Identification of oleanolic acid from saponins present in lucerne (alfalfa) root . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 30 : 540
  • Gestetner , B. 1971 . Structure of a saponin from lucerne (Medicago sativa) . Phytochemistry , 10 : 2221
  • Morris , R. J. , Dye , W. B. and Gisler , P. S. 1961 . Isolation, purification and structural identity of an alfalfa root saponin . J. Org. Chem. , 26 : 1241
  • Morris , R. J. and Hussey , E. W. 1965 . A natural glycoside of medicagenic acid. An alfalfa blossom saponin . J. Org. Chem. , 30 : 166
  • Timbekova , A. E. and Abubakirov , N. K. 1984 . Triterpene glycosides of alfalfa. I. Medicoside‐G, a novel bisdesmoside from . Medicago sativa, Khim. Prir. Soedin. , : 451
  • Nonaka , M. 1986 . Variable sensitivity of Trichoderma virida to Medicago sativa saponins . Phytochemistry , 25 : 73
  • Timbekova , A. E. and Abubakirov , N. K. 1985 . Triterpene glycosides of alfalfa. II. Medicoside‐C . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , 6 : 805
  • Potter , G. C. and Kummerow , F. A. 1954 . Chemical similarity and biological activity of the saponins isolated from alfalfa and soybeans . Science , 120 : 224
  • Oleszek , W. and Jurzysta , M. 1986 . Isolation, chemical characterization and biological activity of alfalfa (Medicago media Pers.) root saponins . Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. , 55 : 23
  • Jurzysta , M. 1973 . Isolation and chemical charcterization of saponins from luceme seeds (Medicago media Pers.) . Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. , 42 : 201
  • Walter , E. D. 1957 . Isolation of a saponin, hederin, and its sapogenin, hederagenin, from Bur clover (Medicago hispida) . J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. , 46 : 466
  • Walter , E. D. 1961 . Isolation of oleanolic acid and saponin from trefoil (Lotus corniculatus va. Viking) . J. Pharm. Sci. , 50 : 173
  • Walter , E. D. , Bickoff , E. M. , Thompson , C. R. , Robinson , C. H. and Djerassi , C. 1955 . Saponin from ladino clover (Trifolium repens) . J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 77 : 4936
  • Myoga , K. and Shibata , F. 1977 . Ladino clover sapogenins and gas chromatographic assay methods . J. Jpn. Soc Grassl. Sci. , 23 : 67
  • Walter , E. D. 1960 . Note on saponins and their sapogenins from strawberry clover . J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. , 49 : 735
  • Kitagawa , I. Verfahren zum Isolieren von Soja‐Saponinen . West German Patent, DE 3400258 A1 . 1984 .
  • Oleszek , W. and Jurzysta , M. 1986 . Isolation, chemical characterization and biological activity of red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) root saponins . Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. , 55 : 247
  • Jurzysta , M. 1984 . Ogolna charakterystyka chemiczna saponin nasion lucerny chmielowej (Medicago lupulina L.), Streszczenie XI . Zjazdu P.T. Biochem. Bialystok ,
  • Gorski , P. M. , Jurzysta , M. , Burda , S. , Oleszek , W. A. and Ploszynski , M. 1984 . Studies on Medicago lupulina saponins. I. Isolation and identification of sapogenins from M. lupulina tops . Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. , 53 : 515
  • Gorski , P. M. , Jurzysta , M. , Burda , S. , Oleszek , W. A. and Polszynski , M. 1984 . Studies on Medicago lupulina saponins. II. Isolation, chemical characterization and biological activity of saponins from M. lupulina tops . Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. , 53 : 527
  • Oleszek , W. , Jurzysta , M. , Gorski , P. , Burda , S. and Ploszynski , M. in press . Studies on Medicago lupulina saponins. VI. Some chemical characteristics and biological activity of root saponins . Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. ,
  • Nicollier , G. and Thompson , A. C. 1983 . A new triterpenoid saponin from the flowers of Melilotus alba white sweet clover . J. Nat. Prod. , 46 : 183
  • Kasprzyk , Z. and Jachymczyk , W. 1956 . Triterpene saponins of plants of the family Compositae. II. Saponin of sunflower blossom (Helianthus annuus) . Acta Biochim. Pol. , 3 : 295
  • Jachymczyk , W. and Kasprzyk , Z. 1962 . Triterpenoid saponins of the Compositae family. III. Echinocystic acid, the aglycone of the sunflower (Helianthus annuus) saponin . Rocz. Chim. Ann. Soc. Chim. Pol. , 36 : 1615
  • St. Pyrek , J. 1979 . Terpenes of Compositae plants. XI. Structures of heliantriols B0 B1 B2 and A1 new pentacyclic triterpenes from Helianthus annuus L. and Calendula officinalis L . Pol. J. Chem. , 53 : 2465
  • Vogel , G. and Uebel , H. 1960 . Das Therapeutisch Wirksame Prinzip der Rosskastanie (Aesculus hippocastanum), 3 Mitteilung. Zur Frage von Angriffspunkt und Wirkungsmechanismus . Arzneim. Forsch. , 10 : 275
  • Cainelli , G. , Melera , A. , Arigoni , D. and Jeger , O. 1957 . Zur Kenntnis der Triterpene . Helv. Chim. Acta , 40 : 2390
  • Yosioka , I. , Matsuda , A. , Imai , K. , Nishimura , T. and Kitagawa , I. 1971 . Seed sapogenols of Aesculus turbinata Blume. On the configuration of hydroxyl functions in ring E of aescigenin, protoaescigenin and isoaescigenin in relation to barringtogenol C and theasapogenol A . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 19 : 1200
  • Kuhn , R. and Löw , I. 1963 . Über Protoäscigenin, die Stammsubstanz der Äscine . Liebigs Anna. Chem. , 669 : 183
  • Kuhn , R. and Löw , I. 1964 . Äscinidin, ein Pentahydroxy‐triterpen aus Äscinprepäraten . Tetrahedron Lett. , : 891
  • Kuhn , R. and Low , I. 1966 . Uber die Protoäscigeninester aus Äscin . Tetrahedron Let. , : 1899
  • Wagner , J. , Hoffmann , H. and Low , I. 1968 . Über Inhaltsstoffe des Rostkastaniensamens. VI. Die Acylglyka der Ascine . Tetrahedron Lett. , : 4387
  • Yosioka , I. , Imai , K. and Kitagawa , I. 1967 . On the triterpenic constituents of the seed saponins of Aesculus turbinata Blume . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 15 : 135
  • Yosioka , I. , Imai , K. and Kitagawa , I. 1967 . On genuine sapogenins of horsechestnut saponins by means of soil bacterial hydrolysis and a new minor sapogenin: 16‐desoxybarringtogenol C . Tetrahedron Lett. , : 2577
  • Tschesche , R. and Axen , U. 1964 . Zur Frage des Kryptoäscins uber Triterpene, XV . Natunvissenschaften , 51 : 359
  • Wagner , J. , Hoffman , H. and Löw , I. 1970 . Über Inhaltsstoffe des Rostkastaniensamens. VIII. Die Acylglyka des Kryptoascins und α‐Äscins . Hoppe Seyler's Z. Physiol. Chem. , 351 : 1133
  • Wulff , G. and Tschesche , R. 1969 . Über Triterpene. XXVI. Über die Struktur der Rostkastaniensaponine (aescin) und die Aglykone verwandter Glykoside . Tetrahedron , 25 : 415
  • Wagner , J. , Schlemmer , W. and Hoffmann , H. 1970 . Über Inhaltsstoffe des Rostkastaniensames. IX. Struktur und Eigenschatten der Triterpenglykoside . Arzneim. Forsch. , 20 : 205
  • Hoppe , W. , Gieren , A. , Brodherr , N. , Tschesche , R. and Wulff , G. 1968 . Structure of the principle aglycone of horse chestnut saponin . Angew. Chem. (Int. Ed. Engl.). , 7 : 547
  • Wagner , J. and Hoffmann , H. 1967 . Uber Inhaltsstoffe des Rostkastaniensamens. V. Untersuchungen an Triterpenglykosiden . Hoppe Seyler's Z. Physiol. Chem. , 348 : 1697
  • Salunke , D. K. and Desai , B. B. 1984 . Postharvest Biotechnology of Vegetables , Vol. 1 , 154 Boca Raton, Fla. : CRC Press .
  • Coxon , D. T. and Wells , J. W. 1980 . 3‐Epikatonic acid from guar meal . Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, Phytochemistry , 19 : 1247
  • Curl , C. L. , Price , K. R. and Fenwick , G. R. 1986 . Isolation and structural elucidation of a triterpenoid saponin from guar, Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L . Phytocheimstry , 25 : 2675
  • Pompei , C. and Lucisano , M. 1976 . Le lupin (Lupinus albus L.) comme source de proteines pour l'alimentation humaine . Z. Wiss. Technol. , 9 : 289
  • Hudson , B. J. F. and EI‐Difrawi , E. A. 1979 . The sapogenins of the seeds of four lupin species . J. Plant Foods , 3 : 181
  • Nakano , T. , de Azcunes , B. C. and Spinelli , A. C. 1976 . Chemical studies on the constituents of Lupinus verbasciformis . Planta Med. , 29 : 241
  • Fazli , F. R. Y. and Hardman , R. 1968 . The spice fenugreek, Trigonella foenumgraecum L., its commercial varieties of seed as a source of diosgenin . Top. Sci. , 10 : 66
  • Knight , J. C. 1977 . Analysis of fenugreek sapogenins by gas‐liquid chromatography . J. Chromatogr. , 133 : 222
  • Varshney , I. P. , Jain , J. C. , Srivastava , H. C. and Singh , P. P. 1977 . Study of saponins from Trigonella foenum‐graecum Linn, leaves . J. Indian Chem. Soc. , 54 : 1135
  • Ghosal , S. , Srivastava , R. S. , Chatterjee , D. C. and Dutta , S. K. 1974 . Fenugreekine, a new steroidal sapogenin peptide ester of Trigonella foenum‐graecum . Phylochemistry , 13 : 2247
  • Fowden , L. , Pratt , H. M. and Smith , A. 1973 . 4‐Hydroxyisoleucine from seed of Trigonella foenum‐graecum . Pkytockemistry , 12 : 1707
  • Bogucheva , N. G. , Kiselev , V. P. and Kogan , L. M. 1976 . Isolation of 3, 26‐bisglycosides of yamogenin from Trigonella foenum‐graecum . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , : 268
  • Bogucheva , N. G. , Sheichenko , V. I. and Kogan , L. M. 1977 . Structure of yamogenin tetraoside from Trigonella foenum‐graecum seeds . Khim. Farm. Zh. , 11 : 65
  • 1977 . Chem. Abstr. , 87 : 180685e
  • Hardman , R. , Kosugi , J. and Parfitt , R. T. 1980 . Isolation and characterization of a furostanol glycoside from fenugreek . Phytochemistry , 19 : 698
  • Gupta , R. K. , Jain , C. J. and Thakus , R. S. 1985 . Furostanol glycosides from Trigonella foenum‐graecum seeds . Phytochemistry , 24 : 2399
  • Gangrade , H. and Kaushal , R. 1979 . Fenugrin B, a saponin from Trigonella foenum‐graecum Linn . Indian Drugs , : 149
  • Bohannon , M. B. , Hagemann , J. W. , Earle , F. R. and Barclay , A. S. 1974 . Screening seed of Trigonella and three related genera for diosgenin . Phytochemistry , 13 : 1513
  • Puri , H. S. , Jefferies , T. M. and Hardman , R. 1976 . Diosgenin and yamogenin levels in some Indian plant samples . Planta Med. , 30 : 118
  • Hardman , R. and Fazli , F. R. Y. 1972 . Methods of screening the genus Trigonella for steroidal sapogenins in genus Trigonella . Planta Med. , 21 : 131
  • Voloshina , D. A. , Rumyantseva , G. N. , Shani , S. S. , Kalunyants , K. S. and Grebeshova , K. A. 1975 . Effect of fermentation on the sapogenin yield from seeds of Trigonella foenum‐graecum . Appl. Biochem. Microbiol. , 11 : 774
  • 1976 . Chem. Abstr. , 84 : 56692d
  • Elujoba , A. A. and Hardman , R. 1985 . Incubation conditions for fenugreek whole seed . Planta Med. , 51 : 113
  • Sawuaire , Y. and Baccou , J. C. 1978 . L'obtention de la diosgenine (25R)spirost‐5‐ene‐3β‐ol: probleme de l'hydrolyse acide des saponines . Lloydia. , 41 : 247
  • Tschirsch , A. and Gauchmann , S. 1908 . Weitere Untersuchungen über die Glycyrrhizinsäure . Arch. Pharm. , 246 : 554
  • Bergmann , F. 1933 . Über das enzymatische Verhalten von Glucuroniden und über Glycyrrhizinsäure . Biochem. Z. , 267 : 304
  • Voss , W. and Pfirschke , J. 1937 . Über ein neuartiges Disaccharid als Zuckeranteil des Glycyrrhizins. II. Mitteil, über Glycyrrhizin . Chem. Ber. , 70 : 132
  • Lythgoe , B. and Trippett , S. 1950 . The constitution of the disaccharide of glycyrrhinic acid . J. Chem. Soc. , : 1983
  • Yogoshi , T. , Shidehara , N. and Nakaura , M. 1986 . Purification of glycyrrhetic acid as sweetener . Jpn. Kokai Tokyo Koho J. P. , 6137 : 798
  • 1986 . Chem. Abstr. , 105 : 77808
  • Tschirsch , A. and Cederburg , H. 1907 . Über das Glycyrrhizin . Arch. Pharm. , 245 : 97
  • Ruzicka , L. , Jeger , O. and Ingold , W. 1943 . Neuer Beweis fur die verschiedene Lage der Carboxylgruppe bei der Oleanolsaure und der Glycyrrhetinsaure . Helv. Chim. Acta , 26 : 2278
  • Varshney , I. P. , Jain , D. C. and Srivastava , H. C. 1983 . Study of saponins from Glycyrrhiza glabra root . Int. J. Crude Drug Res. , 21 : 169
  • Duke , J. A. 1981 . Handbook of Legumes of World Economic Importance , New York : Plenum Press .
  • Canonica , L. , Danieli , B. , Manitto , P. and Russo , G. 1966 . Triterpeni della Glycyrrhiza glabra. III. Struttura dell'isoglabrolide . Gazz. Chim. Ital. , 96 : 843
  • Canonica , L. , Danieli , B. , Manitto , P. , Russo , G. and Bombardelli , E. 1967 . Triterpeni della Glycyrrhiza glabra. Glicirretolo e 21‐α idrossiisoglabrolide . Gazz. Chim. Ital. , 97 : 1347
  • Canonica , L. , Danieli , B. , Manitto , P. , Russo , G. , Bombardelli , E. and Bonati , A. 1968 . Triterpeni della Glycyrrhiza glabra. VII. Acido 24‐idrossiliquiritico ed acido liquiridioloco . Gazz. Chim. Ita. , 98 : 712
  • Elgamal , M. H. A. and El‐Tawil , B. A. H. 1975 . 28‐Hyroxyglycyrrhetic acid, a new triterpenoid isolated from the roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra . Planta Med. , 27 : 159
  • Canonica , L. , Danieli , B. , Russo , G. and Bonati , A. 1967 . Triterpeni della Glycyrrhiza glabra. IV. Acido 18 α‐osiglicirretico . Gazz. Chim. Ital. , 97 : 769
  • Russo , G. 1967 . I triterpeni della Glycyrrhiza glabra L . Fitoterapia , 38 : 98
  • Elgamal , M. H. A. and Fayez , M. B. E. 1968 . The structure of glabric acid, a further triterpenoid constituent of Glycyrrhiza glabra . Acta. Chim. Acad. Sci. Hung. , 58 : 75
  • Canonica , L. , Russo , G. and Bombardelli , E. 1966 . Triterpeni della Glycyrrhiza glabra. II. Acido liquiritico . Gazz. Chim. Ital. , 96 : 832
  • Canonica , L. , Russo , G. and Bonati , A. 1966 . Triterpeni della Glycyrrhiza glabra. I. Due novi lattoni a scheletro oleananico . Gazz. Chim. Ital. , 96 : 772
  • Canonica , L. , Danieli , B. , Manitto , P. , Russo , G. and Bonati , A. 1967 . Triterpeni della Glycyrrhiza glabra. VI. Acidi 24‐idrossiglicirretico e 24‐idrossi‐l 1‐desossoglicirretico . Gazz. Chim. Acta. , 97 : 1359
  • Elgamal , M. H. A. , Fayez , M. B. E. and Snatzke , G. 1965 . Liquoric acid, a new triterpenoid from the roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra . Tetrahedron , 21 : 2109
  • Stepanova , E. F. 1985 . Study of the fermentation of Glycyrrhiza glabra . Farmatsiya (Moscow) , 34 : 20
  • 1985 . Chem. Abstr. , 103 : 194889k
  • Varshney , I. P. and Sharma , S. C. 1968 . Saponins and sapogenins. XXII. Chemical investigations of seeds of Myrislica fragrans Houtt . Indian J. Chem. , 6 : 474
  • Le Beuf , F. 1850 . Recherche sur la saponine . C.R. Acad. Sci. , 31 : 652
  • Hoffmann , P. 1903 . Über die Quillajasäure . Chem. Ber. , 36 : 2722
  • Brandl , J. 1906 . Über die Sapogenine von Quillajasäure und Quillajasapotoxin . Arch. Exp. Pathol. Pharmakol. , 54 : 258
  • Windaus , A. , Hampe , F. and Rabe , H. 1926 . Über das Sapogenin der Quillajasaure . Hoppe Seyler's Z. Physiol. Chem. , 160 : 301
  • Elliott , D. F. , Kon , G. A. R. and Soper , H. R. 1940 . The structure of quillaic acid and its relation to echinocystic acid . J. Chem. Soc. , : 612
  • Varshney , I. P. , Beg , M. F. A. and Sankaram , A. V. B. 1985 . Saponins and sapogenins form Quillaia saponaria . Fitoterapia , 56 : 254
  • Labriola , R. A. and Deulofeu , V. 1969 . The structure of prosapogenin from Quillaja saponin . Experientia , 25 : 124
  • Kartnig , T. and Ri , C. Y. 1973 . Dunnschichtchromatographische Untersuchungen an den Saponinen aus Cortex Quillajae . Planta Med. , 23 : 269
  • Bukharov , V. G. and Shcherbak , S. P. 1969 . Gypsogenic acid glycoside from Saponaria officinalis . Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR Ser. Khim. , : 137
  • 1969 . Chem. Abstr. , 71 : 3620d
  • Chirva , V. Ya. , Kintya , P. K. and Lazur'evskii , G. V. 1969 . Triterpene glycosides form Saponaria officinalis . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , 5 : 59
  • Chirva , V. Ya. and Kintya , P. K. 1969 . Structure of saponoside A . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , 5 : 188
  • 1970 . Chem. Abstr. , 72 : 13007a
  • Chirva , V. Ya. and Kintya , P. K. 1970 . Structure of saponoside D . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , 6 : 214
  • 1970 . Chem. Abstr. , 73 : 88123h
  • Kubota , T. , Kitatani , H. and Hinoh , H. 1969 . Isomerization of quilliaic acid and echinocystic acid with hydrochloric acid . Tetrahedron Lett. , : 771
  • Henry , M. , Brion , J. D. and Guignard , J. L. 1981 . A propos des saponines de la Saponaire officinale . Plant Med. Phytother. , 15 : 192
  • Henry , M. and Guignard , J. L. 1982 . Production d'acide quillayique chez une suspesion cellulaire de Saponaria officinalis . Physiol. Veg. , 20 : 201
  • Oser , B. L. 1966 . An evaluation of Yucca mohavensis as a source of food grade saponin . Food Cosmet. Toxicol. , 4 : 57
  • Backer , R. C. , Bianchi , E. and Cole , J. R. 1972 . A phytochemical investigation of Yucca schottii (Liliaceae) . J. Pharm. Sci. , 61 : 1665
  • Marker , R. E. and Lopez , J. 1947 . Steroidal sapogenins. 161. The seasonal variation of sapogenins in plants . J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 69 : 2375
  • Krider , M. M. and Wall , M. E. 1952 . Steroidal sapogenins. V. Enzymatic hydrolysis of teroidal saponons . J. Am. Chem. Soc , 74 : 3201
  • Jermstad , A. and Waaler , T. 1953 . Uber den Zuckeranteil des Gypsophilasaponins . Pharm. Acta Helv. , 28 : 120
  • Van der Haar , A. W. 1927 . Uber das Gypsophila saponin und seine Hydrolyse‐Spaltlinge (Gypsogenin) und Saccharide . Rec Trav. Chim. Pays Bas , 46 : 85
  • Luchanskaya , V. N. , Kondratenko , E. S. and Abubakirov , N. K. 1970 . Triterpenoid glycosides of Gypsophila trichotoma . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , 6 : 434
  • 1971 . Chem. Abstr. , 74 : 1041d
  • Luchanskaya , V. N. , Kondratenko , E. S. , Gorovits , T. T. and Abubakirov , N. K. 1971 . Triterpenoid glycosides from Gypsophila trichotoma. II. Structure of trichoside A . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , 7 : 151
  • 1971 . Chem. Abstr. , 75 : 49495c
  • Luchanskaya , V. N. , Kondratenko , E. S. and Abubakirov , N. K. 1971 . Triterpenoid glycosides from Gypsophila trichotoma. III. Structure of trichoside B . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , 7 : 431
  • 1971 . Chem. Abstr. , 75 : 152039f
  • Kochetkov , N. K. , Khorlin , A. J. and Ovodor , J. S. 1963 . The structure of gypsoside‐triterpenic saponin from Gypsophila pacifica Kom . Tetrahedron Lett. , : 477
  • Hardin , J. W. and Arena , J. M. 1974 . Human Poisoning from Native and Cultivated Plants. , 2nd ed. , Durham, North Carolina : Duke University Press .
  • Leung , A. Y. 1980 . Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients Used in Food, Drugs and Cosmetics , New York : John Wiley & Sons .
  • Tillyaev , K. S. , Khalmatov , K. K. , Primukhamedov , I. and Talipova , M. A. 1973 . Chemical characterization of Achillea millefolium growing in Uzbekistan . Rasit. Resur. , 9 : 58
  • 1973 . Chem. Abstr. , 78 : 121284q
  • Tschesche , R. and Schultz , H. 1974 . Über das Hauptsaponin der Kornrade (Agrostemma gilhago L.) . Chem. Ber. , 107 : 2710
  • McShefferty , J. and Stenlakc , J. B. 1956 . Caulasapogenin and its identity with hederagenin . J. Chem. Soc. , : 2314
  • Chetyrina , N. S. , Strigina , L. I. , El'Kin , Yu. N. and Isakov , V. V. 1975 . New triterpene glycosides of Caulophyllum robustum maxim. Caulosides E, F, G . Tezisy Dokl. Vses, Simp. Biorg. Khim. , : 13
  • 1976 . Chem. Abstr. , 85 : 10664h
  • Strigina , L. I. , Chetyrina , N. S. and Isakov , V. V. 1976 . Cauloside G, a new triterpenoid glycoside form Caulophyllum robustum. Identification of caulosdie C . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , : 69
  • 1977 . Chem. Abstr. , 86 : 152616a
  • Bogacheva , N. G. , Kogan , L. M. and Libizov , N. I. 1972 . Triterpenoid glycosides from Chenopodium ambrosioides . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , : 395
  • 1972 . Chem. Abstr. , 77 : 162003v
  • Stout , G. H. , Malofsky , B. F. and Stout , V. F. 1964 . Phytolaccagenin, a light atom X‐ray structure proof using chemical information . J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 86 : 957
  • Woo , W. S. and Kang , S. S. 1976 . Phytolaccoside B; triterpene glucoside from Phytolacca americana . Phytochemistry , 15 : 1315
  • Woo , W. S. and Kang , S. S. 1977 . The structure of phytolaccoside G . J. Pharm. Soc. Korea , 21 : 159
  • Suga , V. , Maruyama , Y. , Kawanishi , S. and Shoji , J. 1978 . Studies on the constituents of Phytolaccaceous plants. 1. On the structure of Phytolaccasaponins B, E and G from the roots of Phytolacca americana L . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 26 : 520
  • Kang , S. S. and Woo , W. S. 1980 . Triterpenes from the berries of Phytolacca americana . J. Nat. Prod. , 43 : 510
  • Forni , E. , Trifilo , A. and Polesello , A. 1983 . Researches on the utilization of the pigment from Phytolacca decandra L. as a food colourant. I. Preparation of an extract free from toxic substances . Food Chem. , 10 : 35
  • Lui , J. H‐.C. and Staba , E. J. 1980 . The ginsenosides of‐various ginseng plants and selected products . J. Nat. Prod. , 43 : 340
  • Tschesche , R. , Kottier , R. and Wulff , G. 1966 . Über Parillin, ein Saponin mit stark verzweigter Zuckerkette . Liebigs Ann. Chem. , 699 : 212
  • Tschesche , R. , Lüdke , G. and Wulff , G. 1969 . Sarsaparilloside, ein bisdesmodisches 22‐hydroxyfurostan‐olsaponin . Chem. Ber. , 102 : 1253
  • Vecherko , L. P. and Zinkevich , E. P. 1973 . 3‐O‐β‐d‐glucuronopyranoside of oleanolic acid from Calendula officinalis roots . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , 9 : 560
  • 1974 . Chem. Abstr. , 80 : 15151a
  • Vecherko , L. P. , Zinkevich , E. P. and Kogan , L. M. 1973 . Structure of calenduloside F from Calendula officinalis roots . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , 9 : 561
  • 1974 . Chem. Abstr. , 80 : 15150z
  • Dutta , T. and Basu , U. P. 1968 . On the constitution of isothankunic acid — a new triterpene acid from Centella asialica Linn. (Urb.) . Bull. Nat. Inst. Sci. India , : 178
  • Tschesche , R. , Hermann , K‐H. , Langlais , R. , Tjoa , B. T. and Wulff , G. 1973 . Convallamarosid, ein trisdesmosidisches 22‐Hydroxyfurostanol‐Glycosid aus den Wurzeln von Convallaria majalis L . Chem. Ber. , 106 : 3010
  • Oshima , Y. , Ohsawa , T. , Oikawa , K. , Konno , C. and Hikino , H. 1984 . Structures of dianosides A and B, analgesic principles of Dianthus superbus var. longicalycinus herbs . Planta Med. , 50 : 40
  • Oshima , Y. , Ohsawa , T. and Hikino , H. 1984 . Structures of dianosides C., D, E and F, triterpenoid saponins of Dianthus superbus var. longicalycinus herbs . Planta Med. , 50 : 43
  • Vela , N. P. and Cabrera , L. J. A. 1984 . Use of quinoa seed as food for man . Tecnol. Revist. Instil. Investigac. Tecnol. , 25 : 7
  • Burnouf‐Radosevich , M. , Delfel , N. E. and England , R. 1985 . Gas chromatography — mass spectrometry of oleanane‐ and ursane‐type triterpenes, application to Chenopodium quinoa triterpenes . Phytochemistry , 24 : 2063
  • Achinewhu , S. C. 1983 . The saponin contents of some Nigerian oil seeds . Qual. Plant Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. , 33 : 3
  • Garg , H. S. and Mitra , C. R. 1968 . Putranjiva roxburghii. I. Constituents of the seed coat . Planta Med. , 16 : 17
  • Hariharan , V. 1973 . Saponins of seed coats of Putranjiva roxburghiii Wall . Indian J. Chem. , 11 : 830
  • Hariharan , V. 1974 . Structures of putranosides from the seed coats of Putranjiva roxburghii Wall . Indian J. Chem. , 12 : 447
  • Rangaswami , S. and Seshadri , R. 1971 . Constitution of Putranjiva saponins A, B, C and D . Indian J. Chem. , 9 : 189
  • Seshardri , R. and Rangaswami , S. 1975 . Constitution of Putranjiva saponins A, B, C and D . Indian J. Chem. , 13 : 447
  • Mulky , M. J. and Ghandi , V. M. 1977 . Mowrah (Madhuca latifolia) seed saponin, toxicological studies . J. Appl. Chem. Biotechnol. , 27 : 708
  • Shanmugasundaram , T. and Venkataraman , L. V. 1985 . Nutritional evaluation of ethanol extracted madhuca (Madhuca butyraceae) seed flour . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 36 : 1189
  • Shanmugasundaram , T. and Venkataraman , L. V. 1985 . Effect of ethanol treatment on the proteins of madhuca (Madhuca batyraceae) seed flour . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 36 : 1183
  • Yosioka , I. , Inada , A. and Kitagawa , I. 1974 . Soil bacterial hydrolysis leading to genuine aglycone. VIII. Structures of a genuine sapogenol protobassic acid and a prosapogenol of seed kernels of Madhuca longifolia L . Tetrahedron , 30 : 707
  • Kitagawa , I. , Inada , A. and Yosioka , I. 1975 . Saponin and sapogenol. XII. M1‐saponin A and M1‐saponin B, two major bisdesmosides from the seed kernels of Madhuca longifolia (L.) Macbride . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 23 : 2268
  • Kitagawa , I. , Shirakawa , K. and Yoshikawa , M. 1978 . Saponin and sapogenol. XXIV. The structure of M1‐saponin C., a bisdesmoside of protobassic acid from the seed kernels of Madhuca longifolia (L.) Macbride . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 26 : 1100
  • Shino , K. 1985 . Current health foods . N. Food Ind. , 27 : 61
  • Osaka Yakuhin Kenkyusho , K. K. Ginseng‐Like Saponins in Plant Extracts as Health Food Additives . Japanese Patent 60,09,454 . 1985 .
  • 1985 . Chem. Abstr. , 103 : 36412v
  • Osaka Yakuhin Kenkyusho , K. K. Saponins from Gynostemma pentaphyllum as Health Food Supplements . Japanese Patent 60,43,358 . 1985 .
  • 1985 . Chem. Abstr. , 103 : 48167g
  • Preparations of Beverages Containing Gynostemma Extract and Ascorbic Acid . Japanese Patent 60, 196, 176 . 1985 .
  • 1986 . Chem. Abstr. , 104 : 50126g
  • Osaka Yakuhin Kenkysho , K. K. Rice Vinegar Containing Saponins as a Health Food Supplement . Japanese Patent 60,37,960 . 1985 .
  • 1985 . Chem. Abstr. , 103 : 52942y
  • Juchi , S. Preparation of a tea‐like beverage containing Gynostemma pentaphyllum saponins . Jpn. Kokai Tokyo Koho JP 61,104,772 . 1986 .
  • 1986 . Chem. Abstr. , 105 : 77831r
  • Takemoto , T. , Arihara , S. , Yoshikawa , K. , Tanaka , R. and Hayashi , T. 1985 . On the saponin constituents of Luffa cylindrica Roem. II . Yakugaku Zasshi , 105 : 834
  • Varshney , I. P. and Khan , M. S. Y. 1960 . Saponins and sapogenins. IX. The saponins and the sapogenins of Luffa aegyplica Mill. seeds (black variety) . J. Sci. Indian Res. , 19B : 507
  • Takemoto , T. , Arihara , S. , Yoshikawa , K. , Nakajima , T. and Okuhira , M. 1984 . On the saponin constituents of Gynostemma pentaphyllum Makino. VI . Yakugaku Zasshi , 104 : 939
  • Hu , S‐Y. 1976 . The genus Panax (ginseng) in Chinese medicine . Econ. Bot. , 30 : 11
  • Hu , S‐Y. 1977 . A contribution to our knowledge of ginseng . Am. J. Chin. Med. , 5 : 1
  • Tanaka , O. and Kasai , R. 1984 . Saponins of ginseng and related plants . Prog. Chem. Org. Nat. Prod. , 46 : 1
  • Garrigues , S. 1854 . On panaquilon, a new vegetable substance . Ann. Chem. Pharm. , 90 : 231
  • Topping , D. L. and Oakenfull , D. G. 1981 . In vitro adsorption of bile acids by lignin — or by charcoal? . Lancet , 2 : 39
  • Domon , B. and Hostettmann , K. 1984 . New saponins from Phytolacca dodecandra L'Herit . Helv. Chim. Acta , 67 : 1310
  • Harada , T. Manufacture of saponin from soybean hypocotyls . Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 60,190,788 . 1985 .
  • 1986 . Chem. Abstr. , 105 : 23361u
  • Harada , T. Soybean hypocotyl saponins . Jpn. Kokai Tokyo Koho JP 61,30,593 . 1986 .
  • 1986 . Chem. Abstr. , 105 : 77822p
  • Ota , T. , Hasegawa , T. and Suzuki , T. Saponin production from soybean materials . Jpn. Kokai Tokyo Koho JP 61,07,285 . 1986 .
  • 1986 . Chem. Abstr. , 105 : 59699z
  • Ota , T. , Hasegawa , T. and Suzuki , T. Saponin from soybeans . Jpn. Kokai Tokyo Koho JP 61,07,286 . 1986 .
  • 1986 . Chem. Abstr. , 105 : 59700t
  • Applebaum , S. W. , Marco , S. and Birk , Y. 1969 . Saponins as possible factors of resistance of legume seeds to the attack of insects . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 17 : 618
  • Hostettmann , K. 1980 . Droplet counter‐current chromatography and its application to the preparative scale separation of natural products . Planta. Med. , 39 : 1
  • Hostettmann , K. 1984 . Isolation and idientification of saponins and related terpenoid glycosides . Adv. Med. Plant. Res. , : 225
  • Hostettmann , K. , Hostettmann , M. and Marston , A. 1984 . Isolation of natural products by droplet counter‐current chromatography and related methods . Nat. Prod. Rep. , 1 : 471
  • Ogihara , Y. , Inoue , O. , Otsuka , H. , Kawai , K‐I. , Tanimara , T. and Shibata , S. 1976 . Droplet counter‐current chromatography for the separation of plant products . J. Chromatogr. , 128 : 218
  • Otsuka , H. , Kobayashi , S. and Shibata , S. 1978 . Separation and determination of saponins of Bupleuri radix by droplet counter current chromatogrphy . Planta Med. , 33 : 152
  • Hostettmann , K. , Hostettmann‐Kaldas , M. and Nakanishi , K. 1978 . Moluscicidal saponins from Cornus florida L. . Helv. Chim. Acta. , 61 : 1990
  • Hostettmann , K. , Hostettmann‐Kaldas , M. and Nakanishi , K. 1979 . Droplet counter‐current chromatography for the preparative isolation of various glycosides . J. Chromatogr. , 170 : 355
  • Domon , B. and Hostettmann , K. 1983 . Saponins with molluscicidal properties from Lonicera nigra L . Helv. Chim. Acta , 66 : 422
  • Signer , R. , Allemann , K. , Koehli , E. , Lehmann , W. , Meyer , H. and Ritschard , W. 1956 . Eine Labora‐toriumsapparatur zur multiplikativen Verteilung von Substanzen zwishen zwei nicht mischbaren Flüssig‐keiten . DECHEMA Monogr. , 27 : 32
  • Snyder , J. K. , Nakanishi , K. , Hostettmann , K. and Hostettmann , M. 1984 . Application of rotation locular counter‐current chromatography in natural products isolation . J. Liq. Chromatogr. , 7 : 243
  • Deyl , Z. , Rosmus , J. and Pavlicek , M. 1964 . Centrifugal chromatography . Chromatogr. Rev. , 6 : 19
  • Still , W. C. , Kahn , M. and Mitra , M. 1978 . Rapid chromatographic technique for preparative separations with moderate resolution . J. Org. Chem. , 43 : 2933
  • Gatner , F. , Msonthi , J. D. and Hostettmann , K. 1985 . Molluscicidal saponins from Talinum tenuissimum Dinter . Helv. Chim. Acta. , 68 : 555
  • Chen , S. E. and Staba , E. J. 1978 . American ginseng. I. Large Scale isolation of ginsenosides from leaves and stems . Lloydia , 41 : 361
  • Kitagawa , I. , Yoshikawa , M. , Imakura , Y. and Yosioka , I. 1973 . Photolysis of glycoside linkage in saponin . Chem. Ind. , : 276
  • Kitagawa , I. , Yoshikawa , M. and Yosioka , I. 1973 . Photolysis of uronide linkage in saponin . Tetrahedron Lett. , : 3997
  • Kitagawa , I. , Yoshikawa , M. , Imakura , Y. and Yosioka , I. 1974 . Photochemical cleavage of glycoside linkage in saponin. I. Photolysis of some saponins and their structural features . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 22 : 1339
  • Kitagawa , I. , Imakura , Y. , Hayashi , T. and Yosioka , Y. 1975 . Structures of jegosapogenin and desacylje‐gosaponin obtained from pericarps of Styrax japonica Sieb. et Zucc . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 23 : 1520
  • Kitagawa , I. , Yoshikawa , M. , Ikenishi , Y. , Sik Im , K. and Yosioka , I. 1976 . A new selective cleavage method of glucoronide linkage in oligoglycoside. Lead acetate oxidation followed by alkali treatment . Tetrahedron Lett. , : 549
  • Kitagawa , I. , Kamigauchi , T. , Ohmori , H. and Yoshikawa , M. 1980 . Saponin and sapogenol. XXIX. Selective cleavage of the glucuronide linkage in oligoglycosides by anodic oxidation . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 28 : 3078
  • Kitagawa , I. , Ikenishi , Y. , Yoshikawa , M. and Sik Im , K. 1977 . Selective cleavage of the glucuronide linkage in saponin by acetic anhydride and pyridine treatment . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 25 : 1408
  • Higuchi , R. , Tokimitsu , Y. , Hamada , N. , Komori , T. and Kawasaki , T. 1985 . A new cleavage method for the sugar‐aglycone linkage in saponin . Liebigs Ann. Chem. , : 1192
  • Smith , F. and Unrau , A. M. 1959 . On the presence of 1–6 linkages in laminarin . Chem. Ind. , : 881
  • Hay , G. W. , Lewis , B. A. and Smith , F. 1965 . Periodate oxidation of polysaccharides: general procedures . Methods Carbohydr. Chem. , 5 : 357
  • Dugan , J. J. and DeMayo , P. 1965 . Terpenoids. X. Pre‐senegenin, a quite normal treterpenoid . Can. J. Chem. , 43 : 2033
  • Tschesche , R. , Inchaurrondo , F. and Wulff , G. 1964 . Das Aglykon des Cyclamins . Liebigs Ann. Chem. , 680 : 107
  • Shibata , S. , Tanaka , O. , Ando , T. , Sado , M. , Tsushima , S. and Ohsawa , T. 1966 . Chemical studies on oriental plant drugs. XIV. Protopanaxadiol, a genuine sapogenin of ginseng saponins . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 14 : 595
  • Ohtani , K. , Mizutani , K. , Kasai , R. and Tanaka , O. 1984 . Selective cleavage of ester type glycoside‐linkages and its application to structure determination of natural oligoglycosides . Tetrahedron Lett. , : 4537
  • Tschesche , R. and Wulff , G. 1963 . Über Saponine der Spirostanolreihe. IX. Die Konstitution des Digitonins . Tetrahedron. , 19 : 621
  • Kawasaki , T. , Nishioka , I. , Yamauchi , T. , Miyahara , K. and Enbushu , M. 1965 . Digitalis saponins. HI. Enzymatic hydrolysis of leaf saponins of Digitalis purpurea L . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 13 : 435
  • Tunman , P. , Gerner , W. and Stapel , G. 1966 . Konstitution des Bryodulcosigenins . Liebigs Ann. Chem. , 694 : 162
  • Kalogjera , Z. and Petricic , J. 1985 . Extract from whole Cepaea snails as an agent for enzymatic splitting of sugars from glycosides . Pharmazie , 40 : 502
  • Hassall , C. H. and Smith , B. S. W. 1957 . Hecogenin from Agave sisalana by microbiological hydrolysis . Chem. Ind. , : 1570
  • Tamm , C. and Gubler , A. 1959 . Umsetzung von Aglykonen und Glykosiden mil Fusarium lini (Bolley). IV. Mitteilung uber Reaktionen mit Mikroorganismen . Helv. Chim. Acta. , 42 : 239
  • Lourens , W. A. and O'Donovan , M. B. 1961 . Structures of the lucerne saponins. I. The isolation of triterpene genins from lucerne saponin, 5 . Afr. J. Agric. Sci. , 4 : 293
  • 1962 . Chem. Abstr. , 56 : 10196
  • Yosioka , I. , Fujio , M. , Osamura , M. and Kitagawa , I. 1960 . A novel cleavage method of saponin with soil bacteria, intending to the genuine sapogenin, on Senega and Panax saponins . Tetrahedron Lett. , : 6303
  • Yosioka , I. , Sugawara , I. , Yoshikawa , K. and Kitagawa , I. 1972 . Soil bacterial hydrolysis leading to genuine aglycone. VII. On monoterpenoid glucosides of Scrophularia buergeriana Miq. and Paeonia albiflora Pallas . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 20 : 2450
  • Kohda , H. and Tanaka , O. 1975 . Enzymic hydrolysis of ginseng saponins and their related glycosides . Yakugaku Zasshi , 95 : 246
  • Kitagawa , I. , Yamanaka , H. , Nakanishi , T. and Yosioka , I. 1977 . Structure of spergulatriol, a new bis‐norhopane‐type genuine sapogenol of isoanhydrospergulatriol from the root of Mollugo spergula L . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 25 : 2430
  • Kitagawa , I. , Sik Im , K. S. and Fujimoto , Y. 1977 . Saponin and sapogenol. XXI. Photochemical cleavage of glycoside linkage in triterpenoidal and steroidal arabinoside and galactoside via ultraviolet irradiation of their 2'‐keto derivatives . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 25 : 800
  • Okada , S. , Kishi , K. , Higashihara , M. and Fukumoto , J. 1963 . Substrate specificities of naringinase I and hesperidinase I . Nippon Nogei Kagaku Kaishi , 37 : 142
  • Bock , K. and Pederson , C. 1975 . A study of 13CH coupling constants in pentopyranoses and some of their derivatives . Acta Chem. Scand. Ser. B. , 29 : 258
  • Hostettmann , K. 1985 . Saponines et schistosomiase . Schweiz. Apothek. Z. , 123 : 223
  • Radeglia , R. , Adam , G. and Ripperger , W. 1977 . 13C NMR spectroscopy of Solanum steroid alkaloids . Tetrahedron Lett. , : 903
  • Weston , P. J. , Gottlieb , H. E. , Hagaman , E. W. and Wenkert , E. 1977 . Carbon‐13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of naturally occurring substances . Aust. J. Chem. , 30 : 917
  • Che , C. T. , Fang , X. , Phoebe , C. H. Jr. , Kinghorn , A. D. , Farnsworth , N. R. , Yellin , B. and Hecht , S. M. 1985 . High‐field ‘H‐NMR spectral analysis of some cucurbitacins . J. Nat. Prod. , 48 : 429
  • Agrawal , P. K. , Jain , D. C. , Gupta , R. K. and Thakur , R. S. 1985 . Carbon‐13 NMR spectroscopy of steroidal sapogenins and steroidal saponins . Phytochemistry , 24 : 2479
  • Yahara , S. , Kasai , R. and Tanaka , O. 1977 . New dammarane type saponins of leaves of Panax japonicus C.A. Meyer. I. Chikusetsusaponins, ‐L5 L,’ and ‐L10 . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 25 : 2041
  • Ishii , H. , Kitagawa , I. , Matsushita , K. , Shirakawa , K. , Tori , K. , Tozyo , T. , Yoshikawa , M. and Yoshimura , Y. 1981 . The configuration and conformation of the arabinose moiety in platycodins, saponins isolated from Platycodon grandiflorum and M1 saponins from Madhuca longigolia based on carbon‐13 and hydrogen‐1 NMR spectroscopic evidence: total structures of the saponin . Tetrahedron Lett. , : 1529
  • Wagner , H. , Ott , S. , Jurcic , K. , Morton , J. and Neszmelyi , A. 1983 . Chemistry, 13C‐NMR and pharmacology of two saponins form Colubrina asiatica . Planta Med. , 48 : 136
  • Rowan , D. R. and Newman , R. H. 1984 . Noroleanane saponins from Celmisia petriei . Phytochemistry , 23 : 639
  • Ishii , H. , Tori , K. , Tozyo , T. and Yoshimura , Y. 1984 . Saponins from the roots of Platycodon grandiflorum. II. Isolation and structure of new triterpene glycosides . J. Chem. Soc. Perkin , 1 : 661
  • Tanaka , O. 1985 . Application of carbon‐13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry to structural studies on glycosides: saponins of Panax spp. and natural sweet glycosides . Yakugaku Zasshi , 105 : 323
  • Inoue , O. , Ogihara , Y. and Yamasaki , K. 1978 . Application of 13C‐nuclear magnetic resonance to the elucidation of the structure of a minor dammarane saponin from the seeds of Zizyphus jujuba . J. Chem. Res. , : 144
  • Toistekov , G. A. , Khalilov , L. M. , Baltin , L. A. , Kondratenko , R. M. , Panasenko , A. A. and Vasilyeva , E. C. 1985 . 13C NMR spectra of penta‐ and hexacyclic triterpene compounds derived from glycyrrhizic acid . Khim. Prir. Soedin. , : 645
  • Budzikiewicz , H. , Djerassi , C. and Williams , D. H. 1967 . Mass Spectra of Organic Compounds , San Francisco : Holden Day .
  • Karliner , J. and Djerassi , C. 1966 . Terpenoids. LVII. Mass spectral and nuclear magnetic resonance studies on pentacyclic triterpene hydrocarbons . J. Org. Chem. , 31 : 1945
  • Heftmann , E. , Lundin , R. E. , Haddon , W. F. , Peri , I. , Mor , U. and Bondi , A. 1979 . High pressure liquid chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectra of biosynthetic soyasapogenols . J. Nat. Prod. , 42 : 410
  • Komori , T. , Ida , Y. , Mutou , Y. , Miyahara , K. , Nohara , T. and Kawasaki , T. 1975 . Mass spectra of spirostanol and furostanol glycosides . Biomed. Mass Spedrom. , 2 : 65
  • Higuchi , R. , Komori , T. and Kawasaki , T. 1976 . Massenspektren von Triterpensaponin — permethylat das Oleantyps . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 24 : 2610
  • Schulten , H‐R. , Komori , T. , Nohara , T. , Higuchi , R. and Kawasaki , T. 1978 . Field desorption mass spectrometry of natural products. II. Physiologically active pennogenin — and hederagenin — glycosides . Tetrahedron , 34 : 1003
  • Komori , T. , Kawamura , M. , Miyahara , K. , Kawasaki , T. , Tanaka , O. , Yahara , S. and Schulten , H‐R. 1979 . Field desorption mass spectrometry of physiologically active steroid — and dammarane — saponins . Z. Naturforsch. , 34C : 1094
  • Schulten , H‐R. , Komori , T. , Kawasaki , T. , Okuyama , T. and Shibata , S. 1982 . Confirmation of new, high‐mass saponins from Gleditsia japonica by field desorption mass spectrometry . Planta Med. , 46 : 67
  • Anderson , W. R. Jr. , Frick , W. and Daves , G. D. Jr. 1978 . A direct technique for obtaining electron impact mass spectra of polar, involatile compounds; application to underivatized disaccharides . J. Amer. Chem. Soc. , 100 : 1974
  • Fenwick , G. R. , Eagles , J. and Self , R. 1982 . The fast atom bombardment mass spectra of glucosinolates and glucosinolate mixtures . Org. Mass. Spectrom. , 17 : 544
  • Mellon , F. A. and Fenwick , G. R. 1984 . Fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry of cyanogenic glycosides . Biomed. Mass Spectrom. , 11 : 375
  • Price , K. R. , Mellon , F. A. , Self , R. , Fenwick , G. R. and Osman , S. F. 1985 . Fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry of Solarium glycoalkaloids and its potential for mixture analysis . Biomed. Mass Spectrom. , 12 : 79
  • Adinolfi , M. , Mangoni , L. , Marino , G. , Parrilli , M. and Self , R. 1984 . Fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry of the muscarosides. An aid to the glycoside sequence determination . Biomed. Mass. Spectrom. , 11 : 310
  • Barber , M. , Bordoli , S. , Sedgwick , R. D. and Tyler , A. N. 1981 . Fast atom bombardment of solids as an ion source in mass spectrometry . Nature (London) , 293 : 270
  • Schulten , H‐R. , Singh , S. B. and Thakur , R. S. 1984 . Field desorption and fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry of spirostanol and furostanol saponins from Paris polyphylla . Z. Naturforsch. , 39C : 201
  • Price , K. R. , Fenwick , G. R. and Eagles , J. Positive and negative fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry of saponins . J. Sci. Food Agric. , submitted
  • Fraisse , D. , Tabet , J. C. , Becchi , M. and Rajnaud , J. 1986 . Fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry of triterpenic saponins . Biomed. Environ. Mass Spectrom. , 13 : 1
  • Ikenishi , Y. , Iwatani , K. , Nakagawa , Y. and Kitagawa , I. 1984 . Secondary ion mass spectra of triterpenoidal oligoglycosides . Springer Ser. Chem. Phys. , 36 : 415
  • Bruins , A. P. 1981 . Negative ion desorption chemical ionization mass spectrometry of some underivatised glucuronides . Biomed. Mass Spectrom. , 8 : 31
  • van Breemen , R. B. , Tabet , J. C. and Cotter , R. J. 1984 . Characterization of oxygen‐linked glucuronides by laser desorption mass spectrometry . Biomed. Mass Spectrom. , 11 : 278
  • Jardine , I. , Scanlan , G. F. , Mattox , V. R. and Kumar , R. 1984 . Analysis of steroid and vitamin D glucuronides and sulphates by fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry . Biomed. Mass Spectrom. , 11 : 4
  • Coates , M. L. and Wilkins , C. L. 1986 . Laser desorption/fourier transform mass spectra of glycoalkaloids and steroid glycosides . Biomed. Environ. Mass Spectrom. , 13 : 199
  • Kambara , H. and Hishida , S. 1981 . Secondary ion mass spectra of oligosaccharides . Org. Mass Spectrom. , 16 : 167
  • Harada , K‐i. , Suzuki , M. and Kambara , H. 1982 . Diethanolamine‐assisted secondary ion mass spectrometry of naturally occurring complex oligosaccharides . Org. Mass Spectrom , 17 : 386
  • van der Kaaden , A. , Boon , J. J. and Haverkamp , J. 1984 . The analytical pyrolysis of carbohydrates. II. Differentiation of homopolyhexoses, according to their linkage type, by pyrolysis‐mass spectrometry and pyrolysis‐gas chromatography/mass spectrometry . Biomed. Mass Spectrom. , 11 : 486
  • Krone , H. and Beckey , H. D. 1969 . Field ionization mass spectrometry of carbohydrates . Org. Mass Spectrom. , 2 : 427
  • Gaskell , S. J. , Brownsey , B. G. , Brooks , P. W. and Green , B. N. 1983 . Fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry of steroid sulphates: qualitative and quantitative analysis . Biomed. Mass Spectrom. , 10 : 215
  • Beckner , C. F. and Caprioli , R. M. 1984 . Quantitative aspects of fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry . Biomed. Mass Spectrom. , 11 : 60
  • Price , K. R. , Fenwick , G. R. and Self , R. 1986 . The potential of fast atom bombardment for quantitative minor component analysis. Determination of α‐tomatine in tomato fruit . Food Add. Contam. , 3 : 241
  • Coxon , D. T. 1984 . Methodology for glycoalkaloid analysis . Am. Potato J. , 61 : 169
  • van Atta , G. R. , Guggolz , J. and Thompson , C. R. 1961 . Determination of saponins in alfalfa . Agric. Food Chem. , 9 : 77
  • Wall , M. E. , Eddy , R. C. , McClennan , M. C. and Klumpp , M. E. 1952 . Determination and estimation of steroidal saponins in plant tissues . Anal. Chem. , 24 : 1337
  • Büchi , J. and Dolder , R. 1950 . Die Bestimmung des Hämolytischen Index (H.I.) offizieller Arzneidrogen . Pharm. Acta Helv. , 25 : 179
  • Wasicky , R. and Wasicky , M. 1961 . Polygala brasiliensis L. Eine saponinreiche Polygala — art Brasiliens . Qual. Plant. Plant Mater. Veg. , 8 : 65
  • Segal , R. , Mansour , M. and Zaitschek , D. V. 1966 . Effect of ester groups on the haemolytic action of some saponins and sapogenins . Biochem. Pharmacol. , 15 : 1411
  • Segal , R. , Milo‐Goldzweig , I. , Zaitschek , D. V. and Noam , M. 1978 . A facile method for detection of the genuine sapogenin from a saponin extract . Anal. Biochem. , 84 : 78
  • Kartnig , T. , Graune , F. J. and Herbst , R. 1964 . Saponin distribution in Aesculus hippocastanun during various stages of germination and growth . Planta Med. , 12 : 428
  • Jones , M. and Elliot , F. C. 1969 . Two rapid assays for saponin in individual alfalfa plants . Crop Sci. , 9 : 688
  • Jurzysta , M. 1979 . Haemolytic micromethod for rapid estimation of toxic alfalfa saponin . Acta Agrobot. , 32 : 5
  • Schulz‐Langner , E. 1966 . Quantitative determination of very small amounts of saponin by observation of the duration of hemolysis . Planta Med. , 14 : 49
  • Feher , F. 1983 . Approximate determination of total saponin content in alfalfa by the haemolytic method . Nov‐enytermeles , 32 : 509
  • Mackie , A. M. , Singh , H. T. and Owen , J. M. 1977 . Studies on the distribution, biosynthesis and function of steroidal saponins in echinoderms . Comp. Biochem. Physiol. , 56 : 9
  • Smoczkiewiczowa , M. , Nitschke , D. and Stawinski , T. M. 1977 . Microdetermination of traces of saponin glycoside in plant material . Mikrochim. Acta , 2 : 597
  • Lindahl , I. L. , Shalkop , W. T. , Dougherty , R. W. , Thompson , C. R. , Van Atta , G. R. , Bickoff , E. M. , Walter , E. D. , Livingston , A. G. , Guggolz , J. , Wilson , R. H. and Sideman , M. B. De . 1957 . F. Alfalfa saponins. Studies on their chemical, pharmacological and physiological properties in relation to ruminant bloat . Agric. Res. Ser. U.S. Dep. Agric. Tech. Bull , : 1161 Eds
  • Elkowicz , K. and Sosulski , F. W. 1982 . Antinutritive factors in eleven legumes and their air‐classified protein and starch fractions . J. Food Sci. , 47 : 1301
  • Pedersen , M. W. , Zimmer , D. E. , McAllister , D. R. , Anderson , J. O. , Wilding , M. D. , Taylor , G. A. and McGuire , C. F. 1967 . Comparative studies of saponin of several alfalfa varieties using chemical and biochemical assays . Crop Sci. , 7 : 349
  • Zimmer , D. E. , Pedersen , M. W. and McGuire , C. F. 1967 . A bioassay for alfalfa saponins using the fungus Trichoderma viride . Crop Sci. , 7 : 223
  • Scardavi , A. and Elliott , F. C. 1967 . A review of saponins in alfalfa and their bioassay utilizing Trichoderma spp . Mich. State Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. , 50 : 163
  • Livingston , A. L. , Whitehand , L. C. and Kohler , G. O. 1977 . Microbiological assay for saponin in alfalfa products . J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. , 60 : 957
  • Jurzysta , M. 1979 . A simplified method for the quantification of saponins in alfalfa by use of Trichoderma viride fungus . Hadowla Roslin , 1 : 16
  • Morgan , M. R. A. , McNerney , R. , Matthew , J. A. , Coxon , D. T. and Chan , H W.‐S. 1983 . An enzyme‐linked immunoassay for total glycoalkaloids in potato tubers . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 34 : 593
  • Matthew , J. A. , Morgan , M. R. A. , McNerney , R. , Chan , H W‐S. and Coxon , D. T. 1983 . Determination of solanidine in human plasma by radioimmunoassay . Food Chem. Toxicol. , 21 : 637
  • Hiai , S. , Oura , H. , Odaka , Y. and Nakajima , T. 1975 . A colorimetric estimation of ginseng saponins . Planta Med. , 28 : 363
  • Hiai , S. , Oura , H. and Nakajima , T. 1976 . Color reaction of some sapogenins and saponins with vanillin and sulfuric acid . Planta Med. , 29 : 116
  • Baccou , J. C. , Lambert , F. and Sauvaire , Y. 1977 . Spectrophotometric method for the determination of total steroidal sapogenin . Analyst , 102 : 458
  • Steinegger , E. and Marty , S. T. 1976 . Glycyrrhizinsäurebestimmung in Radix liquiretiae. Vergleich bisheriger Methoden . Pharm. Acta Helv. , 51 : 374
  • Thieme , H. and Hartmann , U. 1974 . Vergleich verschiedener Methoden zur Specktrophotometrischen Bestimmung von Glycyrrhizinsäure in Radix liquiritiae DAB‐7‐DDR . Pharmazie , 29 : 50
  • Zwaving , J. H. 1975 . Comparative investigation of some methods for the determination of glycyrrhizin in liquorice root and its preparations . Pharm. Weekbl. , 110 : 873
  • Gestetner , B. , Birk , Y. , Bondi , A. and Tencer , Y. 1966 . Soyabean saponins. VII. A method for the determination of sapogenin and saponin contents in soyabeans . Phytochemistry , 5 : 803
  • Honerlagen , V. H. and Trelter , H‐R. 1979 . Zur Routine mabigen quantitativen Gesamtsaponinbestimmung in Radix ginseng Panax und Extrakten . Dtsch. Apoth. Ztg. , 119 : 1483
  • Pasich , V. B. 1963 . Absorptiometrische Bestimmungsmethoden des Saponinhalts in Pflanzenmaterial . Planta Med. , 11 : 16
  • Wolf , W. J. and Thomas , B. W. 1970 . Thin Layer and anion exchange chromatography of soybean saponins . J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. , 47 : 89
  • Andrzejewska , E. 1984 . Detection of saponins in preparations of soybean proteins used in food industry . Rocz. Pzh. , 35 : 135
  • Fenwick , D. E. and Oakenfull , D. 1981 . Saponin content of soybeans and some commercial soyabean products . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 32 : 273
  • Kitagawa , J. , Yoshikawa , M. , Hayashi , T. and Tanayama , T. 1984 . Characterization of saponin constituents in soybeans of various origins and quantitative analysis of soyasaponin by gas‐liquid chromatography . Yakugaku Zasshi , 104 : 162
  • Curl , C. L. , Price , K. R. and Fenwick , G. R. 1985 . The quantitative estimation of saponin in pea and soya . Food Chem. , 18 : 241
  • Lütz , C. 1980 . The determination of prolamellar bodies and saponins in etioplasts and leaves of Avena sativa L . Z. Naturforsch. , 35C : 519
  • Phol , P. and Hadrich , W. 1976 . Eine neue Methode zur quantitativen Bestimmung der Glycyrrhizinsäure in Radix liquiritiae . Dtsch. Apoth. Ztg. , 116 : 625
  • Sobotka‐Wierbowicz , J. , Adamcyzk , H. and Smulkowska , H. 1984 . Densitometric determination of gly‐cyrrhizic acid in extractum glycyrrhizae siccium . Farm. Pol. , 15 : 527
  • Tanaka , O. 1977 . Quantitative assay of Korean ginseng components, saponins . Korean J. Pharmacogn. , 8 : 167
  • Saito , I. , Sanada , O. and Shibata , Y. 1976 . The separatory analysis of ginseng saponins by densitometry . Annu. Meet. J. Soc. Pharmacogn. Nov. 1976 .
  • Sakamoto , Y. and Morimoto , I. 1975 . The quantitative analysis of ginseng saponins as their migrated sapo‐genins . Yakugaku Zasshi , 95 : 1456
  • Pleinard , J. F. , Delaveau , P. and Guernet , M. 1977 . Upon the assay of Panax ginseng . Ann. Pharm. Fr. , 35 : 456
  • Franck , H. P. 1975 . Qualitative and quantitative analysis of saponins . Dtsch. Apoth. Ztg. , 115 : 1206
  • Coulson , C. B. 1958 . Saponins. I. Triterpenoid saponins from lucerne and other species . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 9 : 281
  • Van Atta , G. R. and Guggolz , J. 1958 . Forage constituents: detection of saponins and sapogenins of paper chromatograms by Liebermann‐Burchara reagent . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 6 : 849
  • Kazerovskis , K. K. 1962 . Preliminary phytochemical study of Lychnis alba saponin . J. Pharm. Sci. , 51 : 352
  • Jurzysta , M. and Jurzysta , A. 1979 . Thin‐layer chromatography of acetyl derivatives of soyasapogenols A, B C. D and E . J. Chromatogr. , 179 : 233
  • Jurzysta , M. 1984 . Transformation of soyasapogenol B into soyasapogenol C., D and F under acidic conditions . 14th Int. Symp. Chem. Nat. Prod. , 13 : 127
  • Gorski , P. M. , Jaworski , A. , Shannon , S. and Robinson , R. W. 1985 . Rapid TLC and HPLC test for cucurbitacins . Cucurbit. Genet. Coop. Rep. , 8 : 69
  • Gorski , P. M. , Jaworski , A. , Shannon , S. and Robinson , R. W. 1986 . Rapid TLC and HPLC quantification of cucurbitacin C in cucumber cotyledons . Hortic. Sci. , 21 : 1034
  • Sakamoto , I. , Morimoto , K. and Tanaka , O. 1975 . Quantitative analysis of dammarane type saponins of ginseng and its application to the evaluation of the commercial ginseng tea and ginseng extracts . Yakugaku Zasshi , 95 : 1456
  • Brawn , P. R. , Lindner , N. M. , Miller , J. M. and Telling , G. M. 1981 . A gas chromatographic method for the determination of medicagenic acid in lucerne (alfalfa) leaf protein concentrate . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 32 : 1157
  • Van Gelder , W. M. J. 1985 . Determination of the total C27‐steroidal alkaloid composition of Solanum species by high resolution gas chromatography . J. Chromatogr. , 331 : 285
  • Amagaya , S. , Sugishita , E. and Ogihara , Y. 1985 . Separation and quantitative analysts of 18 α‐glycyrrhetinic acid and 18 β‐glycyrrhetinic acid in Glycyrrhizae radix by gas‐liquid chromatography . J. Chromatogr. , 320 : 430
  • Bombardelli , E. , Bonati , A. , Gabetta , B. and Martinelli , E. M. 1980 . Gas‐liquid chromatographic method for determination of ginsenosides in Panax ginseng . J. Chromatogr. , 196 : 121
  • Bombardelli , E. , Bonati , A. , Gabetta , B. , Martinelli , E. M. and Mustich , G. 1976 . Gas‐liquid chromatographic investigation on saponins in Panax ginseng extracts . Fitoterapia , 47 : 99
  • Martinelli , E. M. 1980 . Gas‐liquid chromatographic and mass spectrometric behaviour of plant glycosides, in the form of trimethylsilyl derivatives . Eur. J. Mass Spectrom. , 1 : 33
  • Martinelli , E. M. 1981 . Application of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry to the analysis of high molecular weight glycosides in plants . Rec. Dev. Mass. Spectrom. , 7 : 307
  • Itoh , M. , Asakawa , N. , Hashimoto , Y. , Ishibashi , M. and Miyazaki , H. 1985 . Quantitative analysis of glycyrrhizin and glycyrrhetinic acid in plasma after administration of FM‐100 using gas chromatography — selected ion monitoring . Yakugaku Zasshi , 105 : 1150
  • Schulten , H. R. and Soldati , F. 1981 . Identifaction of ginsenosides from Panax ginseng in fractions obtained by HPLC by field desorption mass spectrometry, multiple internal reflection infrared spectroscopy and thin layer chromatography . J. Chromatogr. , 212 : 37
  • Higgins , J. W. 1976 . A high performance liquid chromatographic analysis of the benzoate esters of sapogenins isolated from Agave . J. Chromatogr. , 121 : 329
  • Hunter , I. R. , Walden , M. K. , Bailey , G. F. and Hettmann , E. 1981 . High performance liquid chromatography, infrared and raman spectra of steroidal saponins . Lloydia , 44 : 245
  • Lin , J‐T. and Xu , C‐J. 1984 . High performance liquid chromatography of steroidal sapogenins . J. Chromatogr. , 287 : 105
  • Tal , D. M. , Patrick , P. H. and Elliott , W. H. 1984 . Bile acids. LXX. Preparative separation of kryptogenin from companion sapogenins by high performance liquid chromatography . J. Liq. Chromatogr. , 7 : 2591
  • Domon , B. , Dorsaz , A‐C. and Hostettmann , K. 1984 . High performance liquid chromatography of oleanane saponins . J. Chromatogr. , 315 : 441
  • Ireland , P. A. and Dziedzic , S. Z. 1986 . High performance liquid chromatography of soyasaponins of silica phase with evaporative light scattering detection . J. Chromatogr. , 361 : 410
  • Kajiwara , N. , Ninomiya , T. , Kawai , H. and Hosogai , Y. 1984 . Determination of solanine in potato by HPLC . J. Food Hyg. Soc. Jpn. , 25 : 256
  • Bushway , R. J. , Barden , E. S. , Bushway , A. W. and Bushway , A. A. 1979 . HPLC separation of potato glycoalkaloids . J. Chromatogr. , 178 : 533
  • Morris , S. C. and Lee , T. H. 1981 . Analysis of potato glycoalkaloids with radially compressed HPLC cartridges and ethanolamine in the mobile phase . J. Chromatogr. , 219 : 403
  • Carman , A. S. Jr. , Kuan , S. S. , Ware , G. M. , Francis , O. J. Jr. and Kirscbenheuter , G. P. 1986 . Rapid high‐performance liquid chromatographic determination of the potato glycoalkaloids α‐solanine and α‐chaconine . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 34 : 279
  • Bushway , R. J. , Bureau , J. L. and King , J. 1986 . Modification of the rapid high performance liquid chromatographic method for the determination of potato glycoalkaloids . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 34 : 277
  • Gorski , P. M. , Jaworski , A. , Shannon , S. and Robinson , R. W. Rapid methods for extraction and purification of cucurbitacins for estimation by HPLC . J. Agric. Food Chem. , submitted
  • Shimizu , K. , Amagaya , S. and Ogihara , Y. 1983 . Separation and quantitative analysis of saikosaponins by high performance liquid chromatography . J. Chromatogr. , 268 : 85
  • Kimata , H. , Hiyama , C. , Yahara , S. , Tanaka , S. , Ishikawa , O. and Auira , M. 1979 . Application of high performance liquid chromatography to the analysis of crude drugs: separatory determination of saponins of Bupleuri radix . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 27 : 1836
  • Kesselmeier , J. and Strack , D. 1981 . High performance liquid chromatographic analysis of steroidal saponins from Avena sativa L . Z. Naturforsch. , 36 : 1072
  • Ichikawa , T. , Ishida , S. , Sakiya , Y. and Akada , Y. 1984 . High performance liquid chromatographic determination of glycyrrhizin and glycyrrhetinic acid in biological materials . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 32 : 3734
  • Killacky , J. , Ross , M. S. F. and Turner , T. D. 1976 . The determination of β‐glycyrrhetinic acid in liquorice by high pressure liquid chromatography . Planta Med. , 30 : 310
  • Akada , Y. and Tanase , Y. 1976 . High speed chromotographic determination of glycyirhizin in liquorice roots and extracts . Yakugaku Zasshi , 96 : 1035
  • Ogawa , S. , Yoshida , A. and Mitani , Y. 1976 . Analytical studies on the active constituents in crude drugs. I. Determination of glycyrrhizin in Glycyrrhizae radix by high speed liquid chromatography . Yakugaku Zasshi , 96 : 122
  • Beasley , T. H. , Ziegler , H. W. and Bell , A. D. 1979 . Separation of major components in licorice using high‐performance liquid chromatography . J. Chromatogr. , 175 : 350
  • Benetti , G. and Michele , L. 1985 . Determination of glycyrrhizic acid in licorice products by HPLC . Bull. Chim. Ig. Parte Sci. , 36 : 81
  • Collinge , A. , Hermesse , B. and Noirfalise , A. 1985 . Recherche et dosage par chromatographie liquide a haut pouvoir de resolution de la glycyrrhizine dans les denrees alimentaires . Belg. J. Food Chem. Biotechnol. , 40 : 143
  • Sagara , K. , Ito , Y. , Oshima , T. , Kawaura , M. and Misaki , T. 1985 . Application of ion‐pair high‐performance liuqid chromatography to the analysis of glycyrrhizin in Glycyrrhizae Radix . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 33 : 5364
  • Nagasawa , T. , Choi , J. H. , Nishino , Y. and Oura , H. 1980 . Application of high performance liquid chromatography to the isolation of ginsenosides from a crude saponin mixture of ginseng . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 28 : 3701
  • Choi , J. H. , Kim , W‐J. , Bae , H. W. , Oh , S. K. and Oura , H. 1980 . Large quantity isolation of ginsenosides, in Panax ginseng (C.A. Meyer) by high performance liquid chromatography . J. Korean Agric. Chem. Soc. , 23 : 199
  • Soldati , F. HPLC separation and quantitative determination of ginsenosides from Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolium and from ginseng drug preparations . Proc. 3rd Int. Ginseng. Symp. pp. 59
  • Pietta , P. , Mauri , P. and Rava , A. 1986 . Improved high‐performance liquid chromatographic method for the analysis of ginsenosides in Panxa ginseng extracts and products . J. Chromatogr. , 356 : 212
  • Kaizuka , H. and Takahashi , K. 1983 . High performance liquid chromatographic system for a wide range of naturally occurring glycosides . J. Chromotogr. , 258 : 135
  • Ruckert , K. W. Quality control of ginseng preparations by means of HPLC . Proc. 3rd Int. Ginseng Symp. pp. 217
  • Otsuka , H. , Morita , Y. , Ogihara , Y. and Shibuta , S. 1977 . The evaluation of ginseng and its congress by droplet counter‐current chromatography (DCC) . Planta Med. , 32 : 9
  • Price , K. R. , Griffiths , N. M. , Curl , C. L. and Fenwick , G. R. 1985 . Undesirable sensory properties of the dried pea (Pisum sativum). The role of saponins . Food Chem. , 17 : 105
  • Fenwick , D. E. and Oakenfull , D. 1983 . Saponin content of food plants and some prepared foods . J. Sci. Food Agric , 34 : 186
  • Ireland , P. A. , Dziedzic , S. Z. and Kearsley , M. W. 1986 . Saponin content of soya and some commercial soya products by means of high performance liquid chromatography of the sapogenins . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 37 : 694
  • Livingstone , A. L. , Knuckles , B. E. , Teuber , L. R. , Hesterman , O. B. and Tsai , L. S. 1985 . “ Minimizing the saponin content of alfalfa sprouts and leaf protein concentrates ” . In Nutritional and Toxicological Aspects of Food Safety , Edited by: Friedman , M. 253 New York : Plenum Press .
  • Tani , T. , Katsuki , T. , Kubo , M. , Arichi , S. and Kitagawa , I. 1985 . Histochemistry. V. Soyasaponins in soybeans (Glycine max Merrill) seeds . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 33 : 3829
  • Sodipo , O. A. and Arinze , H. U. 1985 . Saponin content of some Nigerian foods . J. Sci. Food Agric , 36 : 407
  • Curl, C. L. unpublished result
  • Gorski , P. M. , Jurzysta , M. , Burda , S. , Oleszek , W. A. and Ploszynski , M. 1984 . Studies on Medicago lupulina saponins. IV. Variation in the saponin content of M. lupulina . Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. , 53 : 543
  • Szakacs , G. Y. and Madas , E. 1979 . Wet preservation of leaf protein concentrate by Lactobacilli . Biotechnol. Bioeng. , 21 : 721
  • Hanson , C. H. , Kohler , G. O. , Dudley , J. W. , Sorensen , E. L. , Van Atta , G. R. , Taylor , K. W. , Pedersen , M. W. , Carnahan , H. L. , Wilsie , C. P. , Kehr , W. R. , Lowe , C. C. , Standford , E. H. and Yungen , J. A. 1963 . Saponin content of alfalfa as related to location, cutting, variety and other variables . Agric. Res. Serv. U.S. Dept. Agric. Tech. Bull. , : 34
  • Pedersen , M. W. and Wang , L‐C. 1971 . Modification of saponin content of alfalfa through selection . Crop Sci. , 11 : 833
  • Bushway , R. J. and Ponnampalam , R. 1981 . α‐Chaconine and α‐solanine content of potato products and their stability during several modes of cooking . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 29 : 814
  • Sizer , C. E. , Maga , J. A. and Craven , C. J. 1980 . Total glycoalkaloids in potatoes and potato chips . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 28 : 578
  • Kling , L. J. , Bushway , R. J. , Cleale , R. M. and Bushway , A. A. 1986 . Nutrient characteristics and gly‐coalkaloid content of potato distiller byproducts . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 34 : 54
  • Bushway , R. J. , McGann , D. F. and Bushway , A. A. 1984 . Gas chromotographic method for the determination of solanidine and its application to a study of feed‐milk transfer in the cow . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 32 : 548
  • Koizumi , H. , Sanada , S. , Ida , Y. and Shoji , J. 1982 . Studies on the saponins of ginseng. IV. On the structure and enzymic hydrolysis of ginsenoside‐Ra . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 30 : 2393
  • Soldati , F. and Sticher , O. 1980 . HPLC separation and quantitative determination of ginsenosides from Panax ginseng and from ginseng drug preparations. 2nd communication . Planta Med. , 39 : 348
  • Kubo , M. , Tani , T. , Katsuki , T. , Ishizaki , K. and Arichi , S. 1980 . Histochemistry. I. Ginsenosides in ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) root . J. Nat. Prod. , 43 : 278
  • Tani , T. , Kubo , M. , Katsuki , T. , Higashino , M. , Hayashi , T. and Arichi , S. 1981 . Histochemistry. II. Ginsenosides in ginseng (Panax ginseng, root) . J. Nat. Prod. , 44 : 401
  • Su , H. C. F. , Speirs , R. D. and Mahany , P. G. 1972 . Toxic effects of soybean saponin and its calcium salt on the rice weevil . J. Econ. Entomol. , 65 : 844
  • Horber , E. , Leath , K. T. , Berrang , B. , Macarian , V. and Hanson , C. H. 1974 . Biological activities of saponin components from DuPuits and Lahontan alfalfa . Entomol. Exp. Appl. , 17 : 410
  • Scott , M. T. , Gross‐Sampson , M. and Bomford , R. 1985 . Adjuvant activity of saponin: antigen localization studies . Int. Arch. Allergy Appl. Immunol. , 77 : 409
  • NIOSH . 1975 . Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances , Rockville, Md. : National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health .
  • Newman , H. A. I. , Kummerow , F. A. and Scott , H. M. 1958 . Dietary saponin, a factor which may reduce liver and serum cholesterol levels . Poult. Sri. , 37 : 42
  • Vogel , G. and Marek , M. 1962 . Zur Pharmacologie einiger Saponine . Arzneim. Forsch. , 12 : 815
  • Gestetner , B. , Birk , Y. and Tencer , Y. 1968 . Soybean saponins. Fate of ingested saponins and the physiological aspect of their hemolytic activity . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 16 : 1031
  • Silverstone , G. A. 1985 . “ Possible sources of food toxicants: plants, some foods of animal origin, microorganisms and food additives ” . In Diet‐Related Disease. The Modern Epidemic , Edited by: Seely , S. , Freed , D. L. J. , Silverstone , G. A. and Rippere , V. 40 Beckenham : Croom Helm .
  • Malinow , M. R. , McLaughlin , P. , Stafford , C. , Livingston , A. L. and Senner , J. W. 1983 . “ Effects of alfalfa saponins on regression of atherosclerosis in monkeys ” . In Clinical Implications of Recent Research Results in Arteriosclerosis , Edited by: Hauss , W. H. and Wissler , R. W. 241 Opladen, , West Germany : Westdeutscher Verlag .
  • Fischer , R. 1929 . Der Einfluss der Wasserstoffionkonzentration auf die Solanin‐haemolyse . Biochem. Z. , 209 : 319
  • Seeman , P. 1974 . infrastructure of membrane lesions in immune lysis, osmotic lysis and drug‐induced lysis . Fed. Proc. Fed. Am. Soc. Exp. Biol. , 33 : 2116
  • Dourmashkin , R. R. , Dougherty , R. M. and Harris , R. J. C. 1962 . Electron microscopic observations on Rous sarcoma virus and cell membranes . Nature (London) , 194 : 1116
  • Bangham , A. D. and Home , R. W. 1962 . Action of saponin on biological cell membranes . Nature (London) , 194 : 952
  • Glauert , A. M. , Dingle , J. T. and Lucy , J. A. 1962 . Action of saponin on biological cell membranes . Nature (London) , 194 : 953
  • Tagaki , S. , Otsuka , H. , Akiyama , T. and Sankawa , U. 1982 . Digitonin‐cholesterol complex formation: effects of varying the length of the side‐chain . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 30 : 3485
  • Segal , R. and Milo‐Goldzweig , I. 1978 . The susceptiblity of cholesterol‐depleted erythrocytes to saponin and sapogenin hemolysis . Biochim. Biophys. Acta , 512 : 223
  • Segal , R. , Milo‐Goldzweig , I. , Schupper , H. and Zaitschek , D. V. 1970 . Effect of ester groups on the haemolytic action of sapogenins. II. Esterification with bifunctional acids . Biochem. Pharmacol. , 19 : 2501
  • Segal , R. , Shatkovsky , P. and Milo‐Goldzweig , I. 1974 . On the mechanism of saponin hemolysis. I. Hydrolysis of the glycosidic bond . Biochem. Pharmocol. , 23 : 973
  • Segal , R. and Milo‐Goldzweig , I. 1975 . On the mechanism of saponin hemolysis. II. Inhibition of hemolysis by aldonolactones . Biochem. Pharmacol. , 24 : 77
  • Arneson , P. A. and Durbin , R. D. 1968 . Studies on the mode of action of tomatine as a fungitoxic agent . Plant Physiol. , 43 : 683
  • Roddick , J. G. 1979 . Complex formation between solanaceous steroidal glycoalkaloids and free steroids in vitro . Phytochemistry , 18 : 1467
  • Roddick , J. G. and Drysdale , R. B. 1984 . Destabilization of liposome membranes by the steroidal glycoalkaloid alpha‐tomatine . Phytochemistry , 23 : 543
  • Nakamura , T. , Inoue , K. , Nojima , S. , Sankawa , U. , Shoji , J. , Kawasaki , T. and Shibata , S. 1979 . Interaction of saponins with red blood cells as well as with phosphatidylcholine liposomal membranes . J. Pharm. Dyn. , 2 : 374
  • Shany , S. , Bernheimer , A. W. , Grushoff , P. S. and Kim , K. 1974 . Evidence for membrane cholesterol as the common binding site for cereolysin, streptolysin O and saponin . Mol. Cell. Biochem. , 3 : 179
  • Gestetner , B. , Assa , Y. , Henis , Y. , Tencer , Y. , Royman , M. , Birk , Y. and Bondi , A. 1972 . Interactions of lucerne saponins with sterols . Biochim. Biophys. Acta , 270 : 181
  • Gogelein , H. and Huby , A. 1984 . Interaction of saponin and digitonon with black lipid membranes and lipid monolayers . Biochim. Biophys. Acta , 773 : 32
  • Fukuda , K. , Utsumi , H. , Shoji , J. and Hamada , A. 1985 . Saponins can cause the agglutination of phospholipid vesicles . Biochem. Biophys. Acta , 820 : 199
  • Utsumi , H. , Hamada , A. , Fukuda , K. and Shoji , J. 1984 . Proc. XIIth International Carbohydrate Symposium . 1984 , The Hague, The Netherlands. pp. 214
  • Assa , Y. , Chet , I. , Gesetner , B. , Govrin , R. , Birk , Y. and Bondi , A. 1975 . The effect of alfalfa saponins on growth and lysis of Physarum polycephalum . Arch. Microbiol. , 103 : 77
  • Kennedy , L. M. and Halpern , B. P. 1980 . A biphasic model for action of the gymnemic acids and ziziphins on taste receptor cell membranes . Chem. Senses , 5 : 149
  • Takizawa , II. , Konishi , S. and Nishimo , H. 1985 . Glycyrrhetic acid: a potent inhibitor of tumour promotion in two‐stage carcinogenesis of mouse skin . J. Kyoto Pref. Univ. Med. , 94 : 999
  • Bennett , H. S. 1940 . Life history and secretion of cells of adrenal cortex of cat . Am. J. Anat , 67 : 151
  • Scallen , T. J. and Dietert , S. E. 1969 . The quantitative retention of cholesterol in mouse liver prepared for electron microscopy by fixation in digitonin containing aldehyde solution . J. Cell Biol. , 40 : 802
  • Fiskum , G. , Craig , S. W. , Decker , G. L. and Lehninger , A. L. 1980 . The cytoskeleton of digitonin‐treated rat hepatocytes . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. , 77 : 3430
  • Zuurendonk , P. F. and Tager , J. M. 1974 . Rapid separation of particulate components and soluble cytoplasm of isolated rat liver cells . Biochim. Biophys. Acta , 333 : 393
  • Endo , M. and Iino , M. 1980 . Specific perforation of muscle cell membranes with preserved SR functions by saponin treatment . J. Muscle Res. Cell Motil. , 1 : 89
  • Wolters von , B. 1966 . Zur Antimikrobiellen Wirsamkeit Pflanzlicher Steroide und Triterpene . Planta Med. , 14 : 392
  • Leath , K. T. , Davis , K. H. Jr. , Wall , M. E. and Hanson , C. H. 1972 . Vegetative growth responses of alfalfa pathogens to saponin and other extracts from alfalfa (Medicago sativah.) . Crop Sci. , 12 : 851
  • Levanon , D. , Henis , Y. , Okon , Y. and Dovrat , A. 1979 . Alfalfa roots and nitrogen transformations in peat . Soil Biol. Biochem. , 11 : 343
  • Levanon , D. , Henis , Y. , Okon , Y. and Dovrat , A. 1982 . Alfalfa saponins and microbial transformations of nitrogen in peat . Soil Biol. Biochem. , 14 : 501
  • Segal , R. and Schlosser , E. 1975 . Role of glycosidases in the membranolytic antifungal action of saponins . Arch. Microbiol. , 104 : 147
  • Gestetner , B. , Assa , Y. , Henis , Y. , Birk , Y. and Bondi , A. 1970 . Lucerne saponins. IV. Relationship between their chemical constitution and haemolytic and antifungal activities . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 21 : 508
  • Nagata , T. , Tsushida , T. , Hamaya , E. , Enoki , N. , Manabe , S. and Nishino , C. 1985 . Camellidins, antifungal saponins isolated from Camellia japonica . Agric. Biol. Chem. , 49 : 1181
  • Deason , J. W. and Mitchell , R. T. 1985 . Toxicity of oat roots, oat root extracts and saponins to zoospores of Pithium spp. and other fungi . Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. , 84 : 479
  • Schlosser , E. 1975 . Role of saponins in antifungal resistance. III. Tomatin dependent development of fruit rot organisms on tomato fruits . Z. Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz , 82 : 476
  • Schoenbeck , F. and Schlosser , E. 1976 . Preformed substances as potential protectants, in Physiological Plant Pathology , Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology, New Series Edited by: Heitefuss , R. and Williams , P. H. Vol. 4 , New York : Springer‐Verlag .
  • Roddick , J. G. 1986 . Antifungal activity of plant steroids , ACS Symp. Ser.
  • Polacheck , I. , Zehavi , U. , Nairn , M. , Levy , M. and Evron , R. 1986 . Activity of compound G2 isolated from alfalfa roots against medically important yeast . Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. , 30 : 290
  • Hostettmann , K. , Kizu , H. and Tomimori , T. 1982 . Moluscicidal properties of various saponins . Planta Med. , 44 : 34
  • Ishaaya , I. , Birk , Y. , Bondi , A. and Tencer , Y. 1969 . Soybean saponins. IX. Studies on their effect on birds, mammals and cold‐blooded organisms . J. Sci. Food Agric , 20 : 433
  • Birk , Y. 1969 . “ Saponins ” . In Toxic Contituents of Plant Foodstuffs , Edited by: Liener , I. E. 169 New York : Academic Press .
  • Sutherland , O. R. W. , Hutchins , R. F. N. and Greenfield , W. J. 1982 . Effect of lucerne saponins and lotus condensed tannins on survival of grass grub Costelytra zealandica . N.Z. J. Zool. , 9 : 511
  • Sati , O. P. , Pant , G. and Hostettmann , K. 1984 . Potent molluscicides from Asparagus . Pharmazie , 39 : 581
  • George , A. J. 1965 . Legal status and toxicity of saponins . Food Cosmet. Toxicol. , 3 : 85
  • Koster , M. and David , G. R. 1968 . Reversible severe hypertension due to licorice ingestion . N. Engl. J. Med. , 278 : 1381
  • Conn , J. W. , Rovner , D. R. and Cohen , E. L. 1968 . Liquorice‐induced pseudoaldosteronism‐hypertension, hypokalemia, aldosternonopenia and suppressed plasma renin activity . JAMA , 205 : 492
  • Pelner , L. 1969 . Licorice and hypertension . JAMA , 208 : 1909
  • Suwa , J. and Kimura , S. 1981 . Isolation and the goitrogenic activity of soybean elements which affect thyroid function . Annu. Rep. Fac. Educ. Gunna Univ. Art Technol. Health Phys. Ed. Sci. Hum. Living Ser. , 17 : 71
  • Liener , I. E. 1981 . Factors affecting the nutritional quality of soya products . J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc , 58 : 406
  • Malinow , M. R. , McNulty , W. P. , McLaughlin , P. , Stafford , C. , Burns , A. K. , Livingston , A. L. and Kohler , G. O. 1981 . The toxicity of alfalfa saponins in rats . Food Cosmet. Toxicol. , 19 : 443
  • Malinow , M. R. , McLaughlin , P. , McNulty , W. P. , Houghton , D. C. , Kessler , S. , Stenzel , P. , Goodnight , S. H. Jr. , Bardana , E. J. and Palotay , J. L. 1982 . Lack of toxicity of alfalfa saponins in monkeys . J. Med. Primatol. , 11 : 106
  • Gaunt , I. F. , Grasso , P. and Gangolli , S. D. 1974 . Short‐term toxicity of quillaia extract in rats . Food Cosmet. Toxicol. , 12 : 641
  • Phillips , J. C. , Butterworth , K. R. , Gaunt , I. F. , Evans , J. G. and Grasso , P. 1979 . Long‐term toxicity study of quillaia extract in mice . Food Cosmet. Toxicol. , 17 : 23
  • Kobake , T. , Inai , S. , Namba , K. , Ohe , T. , Takemoto , K. , Matsuki , K. , Nishina , H. , Huang , I‐B. and Tokuoka , S. 1985 . Tumorigenicity study of disodium glycynrhizinate administered orally to urine . Food Chem. Toxicol. , 23 : 979
  • Ewart , A. J. 1931 . The poisonous action of ingested saponins . Commonw. Aust. Counc. Sci. Ind. Res. Bull. ,
  • Williams , M. C. , Rodewijk , J. C. and Olsen , J. D. 1984 . Intoxication in cattle, chicks and hamsters from seed of the palo santo tree (Bulnesia sarmientii) . Vet. Rec. , 115 : 646
  • Abdelkader , S. V. , Ceh , L. , Dishington , I. W. and Hauge , J. G. 1984 . Alveld‐producing saponins. II. Toxicological studies . Acta Vet. Scand. , 25 : 76
  • Kaku , T. , Miyata , T. , Urono , T. , Sako , I. and Kinoshita , A. 1975 . Chemico‐pharmacological studies on saponins of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer. II. Pharmacological part . Arzneim. Forsch. , 25 : 343
  • Ohminami , H. , Okuda , H. , Hamai , T. , Kitagawa , I. , Yosikawa , M. , Arichi , S. and Hayashi , T. 1981 . Effects of soyasaponins on liver injury . Eiyo To Shokuryo , 34 : 105
  • Ohminami , H. , Kimura , Y. , Okuda , H. , Arichi , S. , Yoshikawa , M. and Kitagawa , I. 1984 . Effects of soya saponins on liver injury induced by highly peroxidized fat in rats . Planta Med. , 50 : 440
  • Watari , C. 1985 . Ultramicromorphology of experimental pancreatic damage by carcinogens in response to glycyrrhizin of licorice extract . Wakan Iyaku Gakkaishi , 2 : 164
  • Nishiyama , T. 1955 . Deoxycorticosterone (DOC)‐like effect and the therapeutic effect on peptic ulcer of licorice . Igaku Kenkyu , 25 : 366
  • Aswal , B. S. , Bhukani , D. S. , Goel , A. K. , Kar , K. , Mehrota , B. N. and Mukherjee , K. C. 1984 . Screening of Indian plants for biological activity. X . Indian J. Exp. Biol. , 22 : 312
  • Sati , O. P. , Pant , G. , Nohara , T. and Sato , A. 1985 . Cytotoxic saponins from Asparagus and Agave . Pharmazie , 40 : 586
  • Sollman , T. 1984 . A Manual of Pharmacology, , 8th eds. , Philadelphia : W.B. Saunders .
  • Alvarez , J. R. and Torres‐Pinedo , R. 1982 . Interaction of soybean lectin, soyasaponins and glycinin with rabbit jejunal mucosa in vitro . Pediatr. Res. , 16 : 728
  • Johnson , I. T. , Gee , J. M. , Price , K. R. , Curl , C. L. and Fenwick , G. R. 1986 . Influence of saponins on gut permeability and active nutrient transport in vitro . J. Nutr. , 116 : 2270
  • Maharaj , I. , Froh , K. J. and Campbell , J. B. 1986 . Immune responses of mice to inactivated vaccine administered orally: potentiation by Quilllaja saponin . Can. J. Microbiol. , 32 : 414
  • Shimizu , K. , Amagaya , S. and Ogihara , Y. 1985 . Structural transformation of saikosaponins by gastric‐juice and intestinal flora . J. Pharmacol. , 8 : 718
  • Odani , T. , Tanizawa , H. and Takino , Y. 1983 . Studies on the absorption, distribution, excretion and metabolism of ginseng saponins. III. The absorption, distribution and excretion of ginsenoside Rb1 in the rat . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 31 : 1059
  • Hattori , M. , Sakamoto , T. , Yamagishi , T. , Sakamoto , K. , Konishi , K. , Kobashi , K. and Namba , T. 1985 . Metabolism of glycyrrhizin by human intestinal flora. II. Isolation and characterization of human intestinal bacteria capable of metabolizing glycyrrhizin and related compounds . Chem. Pharm. Bull , 33 : 210
  • Peterson , D. W. 1950 . Effect of sterols on the growth of chicks fed high alfalfa diets or a diet containing Quillaja saponin . J. Nutr. , 42 : 597
  • Peterson , D. W. 1950 . Some properties of a factor in alfalfa meal causing depression of growth in chicks . J. Biol Chem. , 183 : 647
  • Heywang , B. W. and Bird , H. R. 1954 . The effects of alfalfa saponin on the growth, diet consumption and efficiency of diet utilization of chicks . Poult. Sci. , 33 : 239
  • Pedersen , M. W. , Anderson , J. O. , Street , J. C. , Wang , L. C. and Baker , R. 1972 . Growth response of chicks and rats fed alfalfa with saponin content modified by selection . Poult. Sci. , 51 : 458
  • Cheeke , P. R. 1980 . “ Biological properties and nutritional significance of legume saponins ” . In Leaf Protein Concentrates , Edited by: Telek , L. and Graham , H. D. 396 Westport, Connecticut : Avi Publishing .
  • Reshef , G. , Gestetner , B. , Birk , Y. and Bondi , A. 1976 . Effect of alfalfa saponins on the growth and some aspects of lipid metabolism of mice and quails . J. Sci. Food Agric , 27 : 63
  • Cheeke , P. R. , Kinzell , J. H. and Pedersen , M. W. 1977 . Influence of saponins on alfalfa utilization by rats, rabbits, and swine . J. Anim. Sci. , 46 : 476
  • Cheeke , P. R. , Pedersen , M. W. and England , D. C. 1978 . Response of rats and swine to alfalfa saponin . Can. J. Anim. Sci. , 58 : 783
  • Gorski , P. M. , Jurzysta , M. , Burda , S. , Oleszek , W. A. and Plosznyski , M. 1984 . Studies on Medicago lupulina. III. Effect of M. lupulina saponins on the growth and feed utilization by mice . Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. , 53 : 535
  • Coulson , C. B. and Evans , R. A. 1960 . The effect of saponin, sterols and linoleic acid on weight increase of growing rats . Br. J. Nutr. , 14 : 121
  • Johnston , N. L. , Quarles , C. L. , Fagerberg , D. J. and Caveny , D. D. 1981 . Evaluation of yucca saponin on broiler performance and ammonia suppression . Poult. Sci. , 60 : 2289
  • Rowland , L. O. Jr. , Plyler , J. E. and Bradley , J. W. 1976 . Yucca schidegera extract, effect on egg production and house ammonia levels . Poult. Sci. , 55 : 2086
  • Johnston , N. L. , Quarks , C. L. and Fagerberg , D. J. 1982 . Broiler performance with DSS40 yucca saponin in combination with monensin . Poult. Sci. , 61 : 1052
  • Dziuk , H. E. , Duke , G. E. , Buck , R. J. and Janni , K. A. 1985 . Digestive parameters in young turkeys fed yucca saponin . Poult. Sci. , 64 : 1143
  • Cheeke , P. R. , Powley , J. S. , Nakaue , H. S. and Arscott , G. H. 1983 . Feed preference responses of several avian species fed alfalfa meal, high‐ and low‐saponin alfalfa and quinine sulphate . Can. J. Anim. Sci. , 63 : 707
  • Leamaster , B. R. and Cheeke , P. R. 1979 . Feed preferences of swine: alfalfa meal, high‐ and low‐saponin alfalfa and quinine sulphate . Can. J. Anim. Sci. , 59 : 467
  • West , L. G. and Greger , J. L. 1978 . In vitro studies on saponin‐vitamin complexation . J. Food Sci. , 43 : 1340
  • West , L. G. , Greger , J. L. , White , A. and Nornamaker , B. J. 1978 . In vitro studies on saponin‐mineral complexation . J. Food Sci. , 43 : 1342
  • Mills , C. F. , Quarterman , J. , Chesters , J. K. , Williams , R. B. and Dalgano , A. C. 1969 . Metabolic role of zinc . Am. J. Clin: Nutr. , 22 : 1240
  • Lee , S. J. and Yang , B. R. 1984 . Surface activities of ginseng saponins and their interactions with biomolecules. III. The effect on iron absorption . Korean Biochem. J. , 17 : 456
  • Freeland , W. J. , Calcott , P. H. and Anderson , L. R. 1985 . Tannins and saponin: interaction in herbivore diets . Biochem. Syst. Ecol. , 13 : 189
  • Binns , W. and Pederson , M. W. 1964 . Effect of feeding high saponin alfalfa hay to four‐month‐old Holstein‐Friesian bulls . Proc. 7th Conf. Rumen Function . 1964 , Chicago.
  • Hale , W. H. , Sherman , W. C. , Reynolds , W. M. and Luther , H. G. 1961 . The value of certain steroidal sapogenins in rations of fattening lambs and cattle . Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. , 106 : 486
  • Goodall , S. R. , Braddy , P. , Horton , D. and Beckner , B. 1982 . Steam flaked vs. high moisture content rations with and without sarsasaponin for finishing steers . J. Anim. Sci. West. Sec. Proc , : 45
  • Grobner , M. A. , Johnson , D. E. , Goodall , S. R. and Benz , D. A. 1982 . Sarsasaponin effects on in vitro continuous flow fermentation of a high grain diet . J. Anim. Sci. West. Sec. Proc , : 64
  • Goetsch , A. L. and Owens , F. N. 1985 . Effects of sarsasaponin on digestion and passage rates in cattle fed medium to low concentrate . J. Dairy Sci. , 68 : 2377
  • Valdez , F. R. , Bash , L. J. , Goetsch , A. L. and Owens , F. N. 1986 . Effect of steroidal sapogenins on ruminal fermentation and on production of lactating dairy cows . J. Dairy Sci. , 69 : 1568
  • Lindahl , I. L. and Davis , R. E. 1957 . Action of alfalfa saponin in experimental bloat and possible relationships of saponin to clinical bloat . U.S. Dep. Agric. Tech. Bull. , 1161 : 60
  • Cheeke , P. R. 1971 . Nutritional and physiological implications of saponins: a review . Can. J. Anim. Sci. , 51 : 621
  • Wilson , R. H. , Sideman , M. B. and DeEds , F. 1957 . Some pharmacological effects of alfalfa saponin on non‐ruminants and on isolated muscle strips . U.S. Dep. Agric. Tech. Bull. , 1161 : 70
  • Jackson , H. D. and Shaw , R. A. 1959 . Chemical and biological properties of a respiratory inhibitor from alfalfa saponins . Arch. Biochem. Biophys. , 84 : 411
  • Myoga , K. and Shibata , F. 1975 . Biological activities of Iadino clover saponins . Jpn. J. Zootech. Sci. , 46 : 42
  • Majak , W. , Wowarth , R. E. , Fesser , A. C. , Goplen , B. P. and Pederson , M. W. 1970 . Relationships between ruminant bloat and the composition of alfalfa herbage. II. Saponins . Can. J. Anim. Sci. , 60 : 699
  • Daubert , B. F. 1950 . Soybean Products , Edited by: Markley , K. S. Vol. 1 , 374 New York : Interscience Publishers .
  • Terasawa , K. , Bandoh , M. , Tosa , H. and Hirate , J. 1986 . Disposition of glycyrrhetic acid and its glycosides in healthy subjects and patients with pseudoaldosteronism . J. Pharmacobiol. Dyn. , 9 : 95
  • Kennedy , L. M. and Halpern , B. P. 1980 . Extraction, purification and characterization of a sweetness‐modifying component from Ziziphus jujuba . Chem. Sense , 5 : 1379
  • Smith , V. V. and Halpern , B. P. 1983 . Selective suppression of judged sweetness by ziziphins . Physiol. Behav. , 30 : 867
  • Harris , D. J. , Cheeke , P. R. and Patton , N. M. 1981 . Utilization of high alfalfa diets by rabbits . J. Appl. Rabbit Res. , 4 : 30
  • Malinow , M. R. , Connor , W. E. , McLaughlin , P. , Stafford , C. , Lin , D. S. , Livingston , A. L. , Kohler , G. O. and McNuIty , W. P. 1981 . Cholesterol and bile acid balance in Macaca fascicularis. Effects of alfalfa saponins . J. Clin. Invest. , 67 : 156
  • Oakenfull , D. G. 1981 . Dietary fibre, saponins and plasma cholesterol . Food Tech. Aust. , 33 : 432
  • Griminger , P. and Fisher , H. 1958 . Dietary saponin and plasma cholesterol in the chicken . Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. , 99 : 424
  • Cookson , F. B. and Federoff , S. 1967 . Quantitative relationships between administered cholesterol and alfalfa required to prevent hypercholesterolaemia in rabbits . J. Atheroscler. Res. , 7 : 69
  • Malinow , M. R. , McLaughlin , P. , Kohler , G. O. and Livingston , A. L. 1977 . Prevention of elevated cholesterolaemia in monkeys by alfalfa saponins . Steroids , 29 : 105
  • Singh , R. A. 1975 . A note on feeding of bile‐acid sequestrants on cholesterol metabolism of laying hens: ion exchange resin (cholestyramine) and saponin . Indian J. Anim. Sci. , 45 : 163
  • Sim , J. S. , Kitts , W. D. and Bragg , D. B. 1984 . Effect of dietary saponin on egg cholesterol level and laying hen performance . Can. J. Anim. Sci. , 64 : 977
  • Malinow , M. R. , McLaughlin , P. , Papworth , L. , Stafford , C. , Kohler , G. O. , Livingston , L. and Cheeke , P. R. 1977 . Effect of alfalfa saponins on intestinal cholesterol absorption in rats . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 30 : 2061
  • Malinow , M. R. , McLaughlin , P. , Stafford , C. , Livingston , L. , Kohler , G. O. and Cheeke , P. R. 1979 . Comparative effects of alfalfa saponins and alfalfa fiber on cholesterol absorption in rats . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 32 : 1810
  • Malinow , M. R. , McLaughlin , P. , Stafford , C. , Livingston , A. L. and Kohler , G. O. 1980 . Alfalfa saponins and alfalfa seeds, dietary effects in cholesterol‐fed rabbits . Atherosclerosis , 37 : 433
  • Yamamoto , M. , Uemura , T. , Nakama , S. , Uemiya , M. and Kumagai , A. 1983 . Serum HDL‐cholesterol‐increasing and fatty liver‐improving actions of Panax ginseng in high cholesterol diet‐fed rats with clinical effect on hyperlipidemia in man . Am. J. Clin. Med. , 11 : 96
  • Story , J. A. , LePage , S. L. , Petro , M. S. , West , L. G. , Cassidy , M. M. , Lightfood , F. G. and Vahouny , G. V. 1984 . Interactions of alfalfa plant and sprout saponins with cholesterol in vitro and in cholesterol‐fed rats . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 39 : 917
  • Topping , D. I. , Storer , G. D. , Calvert , G. D. , Illman , R. J. , Oakenfull , D. G. and Weller , R. A. 1980 . Effects of dietary saponins on fecal bile acids and neutral sterols, plasma lipids and protein turnover in the pig . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 33 : 783
  • Oakenfull , D. G. and Fenwick , D. E. 1978 . Adsorption of bile salts from aqueous solution by plant fibre and cholestyramine . Br. J. Nutr. , 40 : 299
  • Calvert , G. D. and Yeates , R. A. 1982 . Adsorption of bile salts by soya bean, wheat bran, lucerne (Medicago sativa), sawdust and lignin; the effect of saponins and other plant constituents . Br. J. Nutr. , 47 : 45
  • Story , J. A. , White , A. and West , L. G. 1982 . Adsorption of bile acids by components of alfalfa and wheat bran in vitro . J. Food Sci. , 47 : 1276
  • Rotenberg , S. and Eggum , B. O. 1986 . The effect of purified pectins with and without saponins in the diet on selected lipid parameters in liver and blood plasma of rats . Acta. Agric. Scand. , 36 : 211
  • Oakenfull , D. G. 1986 . Aggregation of saponins and bile acids in aqueous solution . Aust. J. Chem. , 39 : 1671
  • Oakenfull , D. G. and Sidhu , G. S. 1983 . A physico‐chemical explanation for the effects of dietary saponins on cholesterol and bile salt metabolism . Nutr. Rep. Int. , 27 : 1253
  • Sidhu , G. S. and Oakenfull , D. G. 1986 . A mechanism for the hypocholesterolaemic activity of saponins . Br. J. Nutr. , 55 : 643
  • Oakenfull , D. G. , Topping , D. L. , Illman , R. J. and Fenwick , D. E. 1984 . Prevention of dietary hypercholesterolaemia in the rat by soya bean and quillaja saponins . Nutr. Rep. Int. , 29 : 1039
  • Rao , A. V. and Kendall , C. W. 1986 . Dietary saponins and serum lipids . Food Chem. Toxic. , 24 : 441
  • Malinow , M. R. 1984 . Saponins and cholesterol metabolism . Atherosclerosis , 50 : 117
  • Hodges , R. E. , Krehl , W. A. , Stone , D. B. and Lopez , A. 1967 . Dietary carbohydrates and low cholesterol diets: effects on serum lipids of man . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 20 : 198
  • Sirtori , C. R. , Agradi , E. , Conti , E. , Mantero , O. and Gatti , E. 1977 . Soybean protein diet in the treatment of type ii hyperlipoproteinemia . Lancet , : 275
  • Sirtori , C. R. , Gatti , E. , Mantero , O. , Conti , F. , Agradi , E. , Tremoli , E. , Sirtori , M. , Fratterigo , L. , Tarazzi , L. and Kritchevsky , D. 1979 . Clinical experience with the soybean protein diet in the treatment of hypercholesterolaemia . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 32 : 1645
  • Potter , J. D. , Topping , D. L. and Oakenfull , D. 1979 . Soya, saponins and plasma cholesterol . Lancet , : 223
  • Calvert , G. D. , Blight , L. , Illman , R. J. , Topping , D. L. and Potter , J. D. 1981 . A trial of the effects of soya‐bean flour and soya‐bean saponins on plasma lipids, faecal bile acids and neutral sterols in hyper‐cholesterolaemic men . Br. J. Nutr. , 45 : 277
  • Oakenfull , D. G. and Topping , D. L. 1983 . Saponins and plasma cholesterol . Atherosclerosis , 48 : 301
  • Pathirana , C. , Gibney , M. J. and Taylor , T. G. 1981 . The effect of dietary protein source saponins on serum lipids and the excretion of bile acids and neutral sterols in rabbits . Br. J. Nutr. , 46 : 421
  • Johnson, I. T. unpublished observations.
  • Gibney , M. J. , Pathirana , C. and Smith , L. 1982 . Saponins and fibre, lack of interactive effects on serum and liver cholesterol in rats and hamsters . Atherosclerosis , 45 : 365
  • Fulder , S. 1980 . The Root of Being. Ginseng and the Pharmacology of Harmony , London : Hutchinson & Co. .
  • 1975 . Abstracts of Korean Ginseng Studies (1687 to 1975) , Seoul, , Korea : Research Institute, Office of Monopoly .
  • Proceedings of 3rd International Ginseng Symposium . Seoul : Korea Ginseng Institute .
  • Hallstrom , C. , Fulder , S. and Carruthers , M. 1982 . Effects of ginseng on the performance of nurses on night duty . Comp. Med. E. W. , 6 : 277
  • D'Angelo , L. , Grimaldi , R. , Caravaggi , M. , Marcoli , M. , Perucca , E. , Lecchini , S. , Frigo , G. M. and Crema , A. 1986 . A double‐blind, placebo‐controlled clinical study on the effect of a standardized ginseng extract on psychomotor performance in healthy volunteers . J. Ethnopharmacol. , 16 : 15
  • Joo , C. M. 1984 . “ The effect of ginseng saponins on biochemical reactions ” . In Surfactants in Solution , Edited by: Miltal , K. L. and Lundman , B. 2093 Academic Press .
  • Oura , H. , Hiai , S. , Nakashima , S. and Tsukada , K. 1971 . Stimulating effect of the roots of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer on the incorporation of labelled precursors into rat liver RNA . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 19 : 453
  • Oura , H. , Hiai , S. and Seno , H. 1971 . Synthesis and characterization of nuclear RNA induced by Panax ginseng extract in rat liver . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 19 : 1598
  • Hiai , S. , Oura , H. , Tsukada , K. and Hirai , Y. 1971 . Stimulating effect of Panax ginseng extract on RNA polymerase activity in rat liver nuclei . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 19 : 1656
  • Iijima , M. , Higashi , T. , Sanada , S. and Shaji , J. 1976 . Effect of ginseng saponins on nuclear ribonucleic acid (RNA) metabolism. I. RNA synthesis in rats treated with ginsenosides . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 24 : 2400
  • Harper , N. , Osborne , A. J. , Makov , U. E. and Bittles , A. H. 1984 . The effects of oral ginseng administration on the activities and isoenzyme profiles of murine lactate dehydrogenases . Biochem. Pharmacol. , 33 : 1571
  • Yokozawa , T. , Seno , H. and Oura , H. 1975 . Effect of ginseng extract on lipid and sugar metabolism. I. Metabolic correlation between liver and adipose tissue . Chem. Pharm. Bull , 23 : 3095
  • Yokozawa , T. and Oura , H. 1976 . Effect of ginseng extract of lipid and sugar metabolism. II. Nutritional state in rats . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 24 : 987
  • Shibatu , Y. , Nozaki , T. , Higashi , T. , Sanada , S. and Shoji , J. 1976 . Stimulation of serum protein synthesis in ginsenoside treated rats . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 24 : 2818
  • Sakakibara , K. , Shibata , Y. , Higashi , T. , Sanada , S. and Shoji , J. 1975 . Effect of ginseng saponins on cholesterol metabolism. I. The level and the synthesis of serum and liver cholesterol in rats treated with ginsenosides . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 23 : 1009
  • Gommori , K. , Miyamoto , F. , Shibata , Y. , Higashi , T. , Sanada , S. and Shoji , J. 1976 . Effect of ginseng saponins on cholesterol metabolism. II. Effect of ginsenosides on cholesterol synthesis by liver slice . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 24 : 2985
  • Avakian , E. V. , Sugimoto , R. B. , Taguchi , S. and Horvath , S. M. 1984 . Effect of Panax ginseng extract on energy metabolism during exercise in rats . Planta Med. , 48 : 151
  • Martinez , B. and Staba , E. J. 1984 . The physiological effects of aralia, Panax and Eleutherococcus on exercised rats . Jpn. J. Pharmacol. , 35 : 79
  • Tsang , D. , Yuehg , H. W. , Tso , W. W. and Peck , H. 1985 . Ginseng saponins: influence on neurotransmitter uptake in rat brain synaptosomes . Planta Med. , 49 : 221
  • Takino , T. , Odani , T. , Tanizawa , H. and Hayashi , T. 1982 . Studies on the absorption, distribution, excretion and metabolism of ginseng saponins. I. Quantitative analysis of ginsenoside Rg1 in rats . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 30 : 2196
  • Odani , T. , Tanizawa , H. and Takino , Y. 1983 . Studies on the absorption, distribution, excretion and metabolism of ginseng saponins. II. The absorption, distribution and excretion of ginsenoside Rg, in the rat . Chem. Pharm. Bull , 31 : 292
  • Chen , S. E. , Sawchuck , R. J. and Staba , E. J. 1980 . American ginseng. III. Pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides in the rabbit . Eur. J. Drug Metab. Pharmacok. , 5 : 161
  • Odani , T. , Tanizawa , H. and Takino , Y. 1983 . Studies on the absorption, distribution, excretion and metabolism of ginseng saponins. IV. Decomposition of ginsenoside Rg1 and Rb1 in the digestive tracts of rats . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 31 : 3691
  • Namba , T. , Yoshizaki , M. , Toraimori , M. , Kobashi , K. , Mitsui , K. and Hase , J. 1973 . Hemolytic and its protective activity of ginseng saponins . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 21 : 459
  • Price , K. R. , Curl , C. L. and Fenwick , G. R. in press . Flash Chromatography — a simple technique of potential value to the food chemist . Food Chem. ,
  • Turecek , P. and Pittner , F. 1986 . Simple enzyme reactors suitable for the by‐product free preparation of the aglycones of naturally occurring glycosides under mild conditions . Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. , 13 : 1
  • Nasner , A. 1985 . Antioxidative properties of lecithin . Fette Seifen Anstrichm. , 87 : 477
  • Rigby , N. M. , Price , K. R. , Coxon , D. T. and Fenwick , G. R. The effect of soyasaponin I on the oxidation of corn oil and lard . J. Sci. Food Agric. , submitted
  • Southon, S. and Johnson, I. T. unpublished observations
  • Massiot , G. , Levaud , C. , Guillaume , D. , LeMen‐Oliver , L. and Van Binst , G. 1986 . Identification of sequencing of sugars in saponins using 2D 1H NMR spectroscopy . Chem. Ind. , : 1485
  • Nishino , C. , Manabe , S. , Enoki , N. , Nagata , T. , Tsushida , T. and Hamaya , E. 1986 . The structure of the tetrasaccharide unit of camellidins, saponins possessing antifungal activity . J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. , : 720
  • Gupta , R. K. , Jain , D. C. and Thakur , R. S. 1986 . Two furostanol saponins from Trigonella foenum‐graecum . Phytochemistry , 25 : 2205
  • Lotlikar , M. M. and Rao , M. R. R. 1966 . Pharmacology of a hypoglycaemic principle isolated from the fruits of Momordica charantia Linn . Indian J. Pharm. , 28 : 129
  • Ul‐Jalal , R. , Jabbar , A. and Hasan , C. M. 1986 . Hypoglycaemic activity of the glycosides of Momordica cochinchinensis . J. Bangladesh Acad, Sci. , 10 : 25
  • Osaka Yakuhin Kenkyusho , K. K. Luffa Saponins as Health Food Additives . Japanese Patent JP 59,203,451 . 1984 .
  • 1985 . Chem. Abstr. , 102 : 165552u
  • Kazuyuki , S. Honey Containing Gynostemma pentaphyllum Components . Japanese Patent, JP 61,92,542 . 1986 .
  • 1986 . Chem. Abstr. , 105 : 96297n
  • Tanaka , K. Effervescent Refreshing Drink . Japanese Patent, JP 61,92,554 . 1986 .
  • 1986 . Chem. Abstr. , 105 : 96298p
  • Charles , M. H. , Grimee , R. and Crucke , F. 1984 . Toxicity of sneezing powders. I. Study on forbidden constituents in sneezing powders . J. Pharm. Belg. , 39 : 371
  • Imaida , M. , Yoshida , A. and Obana , H. 1985 . High performance liquid chromatographic method for the determination of glycyrrhizic acid in various foods . Osaka Furitsu Koshu Eisei Kenkyusho Kenkyu Hokoku Shokuhin Eisei Hen , 16 : 57
  • 1986 . Chem. Abstr. , 105 : 113719w
  • Dubick , M. A. 1986 . Historical perspectives on the use of herbal preparations to promote health . J. Nutr. , 116 : 1348
  • Saunders , R. , Cheetham , P. S. J. and Hardman , R. 1986 . Microbial transformations of crude fenugreek steroids . Enzyme Microbiol. Techol. , 9 : 549
  • Saunders , R. , Hardman , R. and Cheetham , P. S. J. 1985 . Biotechnol. Bioeng. , 27 : 825
  • Sakano , K‐i. and Oshima , M. 1986 . Microbial conversion of 18‐ β‐glycyrretinic acid and 22 α‐hydroxy‐18β‐glycyrrhetinic acid by Chainia antibiotica . Agric. Biol. Chem. , 50 : 1239
  • Shimizu , K. , Amagaya , S. and Ogihara , Y. 1985 . New derivatives of saikosaponins . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 33 : 3349
  • Bae , S. K. , Kwak , H. S. and Joo , C. N. 1986 . biochemical studies on ginseng saponins. XXV. The effect of ginseng saponin fraction on the biosynthesis of ascorbic acid during germination of soybean (Glycine max) . Korean J. Biochem. , 19 : 1
  • Hayama , E. , Tsushida , T. , Nagata , T. , Nishino , C. , Manabe , S. and Enoki , N. Triterpene Saponins from Camellia Leaves as Microbicides . Japanese Patent, JP 61,07,290 . 1986 .
  • 1986 . Chem. Abstr. , 105 : 110508r
  • Kondo , M. , Minamino , H. , Okuyama , G. , Honda , K. , Nagasawa , H. and Otani , Y. 1986 . Physicochemical properties and applications of α‐ and β‐glycyrrhizins, natural surface active agents in licorice root extract . J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. , 37 : 177
  • Oakenfull, D. personal communication.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.