Cardiovascular disease and nutrient antioxidants: Role of low‐density lipoprotein oxidation

References

• Schwartz , C.J. , Valente , A. J. , Sprague , E. A. , Kelley , J. L. and Nerem , R. M. 1991 . The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: an overview . Clin. Cardiol. , 14 (1) : 1
   Google Scholar
• Steinberg , D. , Parthasarathy , S. , Carew , T. E. , Khoo , J. C. and Witztum , J. L. 1989 . Beyond cholesterol. Modifications of low‐density lipoprotein that increase its athero‐genicity . N. Engl. J. Med. , 320 : 915
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein , J. L. , Ho , Y. K. , Basu , S. K. and Brown , M. S. 1979 . Binding site on macrophages that mediates uptake and degradation of acetylated low density lipoprotein, producing massive cholesterol deposition . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 76 : 333
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henriksen , T. , Mahoney , E. M. and Steinberg , D. 1981 . Enhanced macrophage degradation of low density lipoprotein previously incubated with cultured endothelial cells: recognition by receptor for acetylated low density lipoproteins . Proc. Nad. Acad. Sci. USA. , 78 : 6499
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valente , A. J. , Graves , D. T. , Vialle‐Valentin , C. E. , Delgado , R. and Schwartz , C. J. 1988 . Purification of a monocyte chemotactic factor secreted by nonhuman primate vascular cells in culture . Biochemistry , 27 : 4162
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cushing , S. D. , Berliner , J. A. , Valente , A. J. , Territo , M. C. , Navab , M. , Parhami , F. , Gerrity , R. , Schwartz , C. J. and Fogelman , A. M. 1990 . Minimally modified low density lipoprotein induces monocyte chemotactic protein‐1 in human endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 87 : 5134
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cybulsky , M. I. and Gimbrone , M. A. Jr. 1991 . Endothelial expression of a mononuclear leukocyte adhesion molecule during atherogenesis . Science , 251 : 788
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinbrecher , U. P. , Parthasarathy , S. , Leake , D. S. , Witztum , J. L. and Steinberg , D. 1984 . Modification of low density lipoprotein by endothelial cells involves lipid peroxidation and degradation of low density lipoprotein phospholipids . Proc. Nad. Acad. Sci. USA. , 81 : 3883
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morel , D. W. , DiCorleto , P. E. and Chisolm , G. M. 1984 . Endothelial and smooth muscle cells alter low density lipoprotein in vitro by free radical oxidation . Arteriosclerosis , 4 : 357
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van Hinsbergh , V. W. M. , Scheffer , M. , Havekes , L. and Kempen , H. J. M. 1986 . Role of endothelial cells and their products in the modification of low‐density lipoproteins . Biochim. Biophys. Acta , 878 : 49
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinecke , J. W. , Baker , H. , Rosen , H. and Chait , A. 1986 . Superoxide‐mediated modification of low density lipoprotein by human arterial smooth muscle cells . J. Clin. Invest. , 77 : 757
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cathcart , M. K. , Morel , D. W. and Chisolm , G. M. 1985 . Monocytes and neutrophils oxidize low density lipoproteins making it cytotoxic . J. Leukocyte Biol. , 38 : 341
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parthasarathy , S. , Printz , D.J. , Boyd , D. , Joy , L. and Steinberg , D. 1986 . Macrophage oxidation of low density lipoprotein generates a modified form recognized by the scavenger receptor . Arteriosclerosis , 6 : 505
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hiramatsu , K. , Rosen , H. , Heinecke , J. W. , Wolfbauer , G. and Chait , A. 1986 . Superoxide initiates oxidation of low density lipoprotein by human monocytes . Arteriosclerosis , 7 : 55
   Google Scholar
• Parthasarathy , S. , Wieland , E. and Steinberg , D. 1989 . A role for endothelial cell lipoxygenase in the oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 86 : 1046
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rankin , S. M. , Parthasarathy , S. and Steinberg , D. 1991 . Evidence for a dominant role of lipoxygenase(s) in the oxidation of LDL by mouse peritoneal macrophages . J. Lipid Res. , 32 : 449
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkins , G. M. and Leake , D. S. 1990 . Free radicals and low‐density lipoprotein oxidation by macrophages . Biochem. Soc. Trans. , 18 : 1170
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jessup , W. , Simpson , J. A. and Dean , R. T. 1993 . Does super‐oxide radical have a role in macrophage‐mediated oxidative modification of LDL? . Atherosclerosis , 99 : 107
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinbrecher , U. P. 1988 . Role of superoxide in endothelial‐cell modification of low density lipoproteins . Biochim. Biophys. Acta , 959 : 20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinecke , J. W. , Rosen , H. , Suzuki , L. A. and Chait , A. 1987 . The role of sulfur‐containing amino acids in superoxide production and modification of low density lipoprotein by arterial smooth muscle cells . J. Biol. Chem. , 262 : 10098
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sparrow , C. P. and Olszewski , J. 1993 . Cellular oxidation of low density lipoprotein is caused by thiol production in media containing transition metal ions . J. Lipid Res. , 34 : 1219
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bedwell , S. , Dean , R. T. and Jessup , W. 1989 . The action of defined oxygen‐centered free radicals on human low‐density lipoprotein . Biochem. J. , 262 : 707
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch , S. M. and Frei , B. 1993 . Mechanisms of copper‐ and iron‐ dependent oxidative modification of human low‐density lipoprotein . J. Lipid Res. , 34 : 1745
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hazell , L. J. and Stocker , R. 1993 . Oxidation of low‐density lipoprotein with hypochlorite causes transformation of the lipoprotein into a high‐uptake form for macrophages . Biochem. J. , 290 : 165
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarenkova , M. I. , Mueller , D. M. and Heinecke , J. W. 1994 . Tyrosyl radical generated by myeloperoxidase is a physiological catalyst for the initiation of lipid peroxidation in low density lipoprotein . J. Biol. Chem. , 269 : 20394
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Daugherty , A. , Dunn , J. L. , Rateri , D. L. and Heinecke , J. W. 1994 . Myeloperoxidase, a catalyst for lipoprotein oxidation, is expressed in human atherosclerotic lesions . J. Clin. Invest. , 94 : 437
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yates , M. T. , Lambert , L. E. , Whitten , J. P. , McDonald , I. , Mano , M. , Ku , G. and Mao , S. J. T. 1992 . A protective role for nitric oxide in the oxidative modification of low density lipoproteins by mouse macrophages . FEBS Lett. , 309 : 135
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jessup , W. , Mohr , D. , Gieseg , S. P. , Dean , R. T. and Stocker , R. 1992 . The participation of nitric oxide in cell free‐ and its restriction of macrophage‐mediated oxidation of low‐density lipoprotein . Biochim. Biophys. Acta , 1180 : 73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jessup , W. , Darley‐Usmar , V. , O'Leary , V. and Bedwell , S. 1991 . 5‐Lipoxygenase is not essential in macrophage‐mediated oxidation of low density lipoprotein . Biochem. J. , 278 : 163
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sparrow , C. P. and Olszewski , J. 1992 . Cellular oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein does not require lipoxygenases . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 89 : 128
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folcik , V. A. and Cathcart , M. K. 1993 . Assessment of 5‐lipoxygenase involvement in human monocyte‐mediated LDL oxidation . J. Lipid Res. , 34 : 69
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leake , D. S. and Rankin , S. M. 1990 . The oxidative modification of low‐density lipoproteins by macrophages . Biochem. J. , 270 : 741
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esterbauer , H. , Gebicki , J. , Puhl , H. and Jurgens , G. 1992 . The role of lipid peroxidation and antioxidants in oxidative modification of LDL . Free Rad. Biol. Med. , 13 : 341
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , C. , Mitchinson , M. J. , Aruoma , O. I. and Halliwell , B. 1992 . Stimulation of lipid peroxidation and hydroxyl‐radical generation by the contents of human atherosclerotic lesions . Biochem. J. , 286 : 901
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parthasarathy , S. and Barnett , J. 1990 . Phospholipase A2 activity of low density lipoprotein, evidence for an intrinsic phospholipase A2 activity of apoprotein B‐100 . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 87 : 9741
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Steinbrecher , U. P. and Pritchard , P.H. 1989 . Hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine during LDL oxidation is mediated by platelet‐activating factor acetylhydrolase . J. Lipid Res. , 30 : 305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esterbaner , H. , Jurgens , G. , Quehenberger , O. and Koller , F. 1987 . Autooxidation of human low density lipoprotein: loss of polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E and generation of aldehydes . J. Lipid Res. , 28 : 495
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haberland , M. E. , Olch , C. L. and Fogelman , A. M. 1984 . Role of lysines in mediating interaction of modified low density lipoproteins with the scavenger receptor of human monocyte macrophages . J. Biol. Chem. , 259 : 11305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinbrecher , U. P. 1987 . Oxidation of human low density lipoprotein results in derivatization of lysine residues of apolipoprotein B by lipid peroxide decomposition products . J. Biol. Chem. , 262 : 3603
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , M. S. and Goldstein , J. L. 1986 . A receptor‐mediated pathway for cholesterol homeostasis . Science , 232 : 34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sparrow , C. P. , Parthasarathy , S. and Steinberg , D. 1989 . A macrophage receptor that recognizes oxidized low density lipoprotein but not acetylated low density lipoprotein . J. Biol. Chem. , 264 : 2599
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freeman , M. , Ekkel , Y. , Rohrer , L. , Penman , M. , Freed‐man , N. J. , Chisolm , G. M. and Krieger , M. 1991 . Expression of type I and type II bovine scavenger receptors in Chinese hamster ovary cells: lipid droplet accumulation and nonreciprocal cross competition by acetylated and oxidized low density lipoprotein . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 88 : 4931
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haberland , M. E. , Fogelman , A. M. and Edwards , P. A. 1982 . Specificity of receptor‐mediated recognition of malondialdehyde‐modified low‐density lipoproteins . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 79 : 1712
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parthasarathy , S. , Fong , L. G. , Otero , D. and Steinberg , D. 1987 . Recognition of solubilized apoproteins from delipidated, oxidized low density lipoprotein (LDL) by the acetyl‐LDL receptor . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 84 : 537
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navab , M. , Imes , S. S. , Hama , S. Y. , Hough , G. P. , Ross , L. A. , Bork , R. W. , Valente , A. J. , Berliner , J. A. , Drinkwater , D. C. , Laks , H. and Fogelman , A. M. 1991 . Monocyte transmigration induced by modification of low density lipoprotein in cocultures of human aortic wall cells is due to induction of monocyte chemotactic protein 1 synthesis and is abolished by high density lipoprotein . J. Clin. Invest. , 88 : 2039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajavashisth , T. B. , Andalibi , A. , Territo , M. C. , Berliner , J. A. , Navab , M. , Fogelman , A. M. and Lusis , A. J. 1990 . Induction of endothelial cell expression of granulocyte and macrophage colony‐stimulating factors by modified low‐density lipoproteins . Nature , 344 : 254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frostegard , J. , Nilsson , J. , Hagerstrand , A. , Hamsten , A. , Wigzell , H. and Gidlund , M. 1990 . Oxidized low density lipoprotein induces differentiation and adhesion of human monocytes and the monocytic cell line U937 . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 87 : 904
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berliner , J. A. , Territo , M. C. , Sevanian , A. , Ramin , S. , Kim , J. A. , Bamshad , B. , Esterson , M. and Fogelman , A. M. 1990 . Minimally modified LDL stimulates monocyte en‐dothelial interactions . J. Clin. Invest. , 85 : 1260
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehr , H. A. , Becker , M. , Marklund , S. L. , Hübner , C. , Arfors , K. E. , Kohlschütter , A. and Messmer , K. 1992 . Super‐oxide‐dependent stimulation of leukocyte adhesion by oxidatively modified LDL in vivo . Arterioscler. Thromb. , 12 : 824
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinn , M. T. , Parthasarathy , S. and Steinberg , D. 1988 . Lysophosphatidylcholine: a chemotactic factor for human monocytes and its potential role in atherogenesis . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 85 : 2805
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinn , M. T. , Parthasarathy , S. , Fong , L. G. and Steinberg , D. 1987 . Oxidatively modified LDL: a potential role in recruitment and retention of monocyte/macrophages during atherogenesis . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 84 : 2995
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palinski , W. , Rosenfeld , M. E. , Ylä‐Herttuala , S. , Gurtner , G. C. , Socher , S. S. , Butler , S. , Parthasarathy , S. , Carew , T. E. , Steinberg , D. and Witztum , J. L. 1989 . Low density lipoprotein undergoes oxidative modification in vivo . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 86 : 1372
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khoo , J. C. , Miller , E. , Pio , F. , Steinberg , D. and Witztum , J. L. 1992 . Monoclonal antibodies against LDL further enhance macrophage uptake of LDL aggregates . Arterioscler. Thromb. , 12 : 1258
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reid , V. C. and Mitchinson , M. J. 1993 . Toxicity of oxidized low‐density lipoprotein towards mouse peritoneal macrophages . Atherosclerosis , 98 : 17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kugiyama , K. , Kerns , S. A. , Morrisett , J. D. , Roberts , R. and Henry , P. D. 1990 . Impairment of endothelium‐dependent arterial relaxation by lysolecithin in modified low‐density lipoproteins. . Nature , 344 : 160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azuma , H. , Ishikawa , M. and Sekizuki , S. 1986 . Endothelium‐dependent inhibition of platelet aggregation . Br. J. Pharmacol. , 88 : 411
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chin , J. H. , Azhar , S. and Hoffman , B. B. 1992 . Inactivation of endothelium‐derived relaxing factor by oxidized lipoproteins . J. Clin. Invest. , 89 : 10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haberland , M. E. , Fong , D. and Cheng , L. 1988 . Malondialdehyde‐altered protein occurs in atheroma of Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbits . Science , 241 : 215
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jürgens , G. , Chen , Q. , Esterbauer , H. , Mair , S. , Ledinski , G. and Dinges , H. P. 1993 . Immunostaining of human autopsy aortas with antibodies to modified apolipoprotein B and apoprotein(a) . Arterioscler. Thromb. , 13 : 1689
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ylä‐Herttuala , S. , Palinski , W. , Rosenfeld , M. E. , Parthasarathy , S. , Carew , T. E. , Butler , S. , Witztum , J. L. and Steinberg , D. 1989 . Evidence for the presence of oxidatively modified low density lipoprotein in atherosclerotic lesions of rabbit and man . J. Clin. Invest. , 84 : 1086
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salonen , J.T. , Ylä‐Herttuala , S. , Yamamoto , Butler , S. , Korpela , H. , Salonen , R. , Nyyssonen , K. , Palinski , W. and Witztum , J. L. 1992 . Autoantibody against oxidised LDL and progression of carotid athersclerosis . Lancet , 339 : 883
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regnström , J. , Nilsson , J. , Tornvall , P. , Landou , C. and Hamsten , A. 1992 . Susceptibility to low‐density lipoprotein oxidation and coronary atherosclerosis in man . Lancet , 339 : 1183
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rimm , E. B. , Stampfer , M. J. , Ascherio , A. , Giovannucci , E. , Colditz , G. A. and Willett , W. C. 1993 . Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary heart disease in men . N. Engl. J. Med. , 328 : 1450
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stampfer , M. J. , Hennekens , C. H. , Manson , J. E. , Colditz , G. A. , Rosner , B. and Willett , W. C. 1993 . Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary disease in women . N. Engl. J. Med. , 328 : 1444
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enstrom , E. , Kanim , L. E. and Klein , M. A. 1992 . Vitamin C and mortality among a sample of the U.S. population. . Epidemiology , 3 : 194
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riemersma , R. A. , Wood , D. A. , Macintyre , C. C. , Elton , R. , Gey , K. F. and Oliver , M. F. 1991 . Risk of angina pectoris and plasma concentrations of vitamins A, C., and E and carotene . Lancet , 337 : 1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaziano , J.M. , Manson , J.E. , Ridker , P.M. , Buring , J. E. and Hennekens , C. H. 1990 . Beta‐carotene therapy for chronic stable angina . Circulation , 82 A 0796
   Google Scholar
• Kita , T. , Nagano , Y. , Yokode , M. , Ishu , K. , Kume , N. , Ooshima , A. , Yoshida , H. and Kawai , C. 1987 . Probucol prevents the progression of atherosclerosis in Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit, an animal model for familial hypercholesterolemia . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 84 : 5928
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carew , T. E. , Schwenke , D. C. and Steinberg , D. 1987 . Antiatherogenic effect of probucol unrelated to its hypocholesterolemic effect: evidence that antioxidants in vivo can selectively inhibit low density lipoprotein degradation in macrophage‐rich fatty streaks and slow the progression of atherosclerosis in the Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 84 : 7725
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mao , S. J. T. , Yates , M. T. , Rechtin , A. E. , Jackson , R. L. and Tan Sockle , W. A. 1991 . Antioxidant activity of probucol and its analogues in hypercholesterolemic Watanabe rabbits . J. Med. Chem. , 34 : 298
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daugherty , A. , Zweifel , B. S. and Schonfeld , G. 1989 . Probucol attenuates the development of aortic atherosclerosis in cholesterol‐fed rabbits . Br. J. Pharmacol. , 98 : 612
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein , Y. , Stein , O. , Delplanque , B. , Fesmire , J. D. , Lee , D. M. and Alaupovic , P. 1989 . Lack of effect of probucol on atheroma formation in cholesterol‐fed rabbits kept at comparable plasma cholesterol levels . Atherosclerosis , 75 : 145
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Björkhem , L. , Henriksson‐Freyschuss , A. , Breuer , O. , Diczfalusy , U. , Berglund , L. and Henriksson , P. 1991 . The antioxidant butylated hydroxytoluene protects against atherosclerosis . Arterioscler. Thromb. , 11 : 15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wojcicki , J. , Rozewicka , L. , Barcew‐Wiszniewska , B. , Samochowlec , L. , Juzwiak , S. , Kadlubowska , D. , Tustanowski , S. and Juzyszyn , Z. 1991 . Effect of selenium and vitamin E on the development of experimental atherosclerosis in rabbits . Atherosclerosis , 87 : 9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godfried , S. L. , Combs , G. F. Jr. , Saroka , J. M. and Dillingham , L. A. 1989 . Potentiation of atherosclerotic lesions in rabbits by a high dietary level of vitamin E . Br. J. Nutr. , 61 : 607
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Keaney , J. F. Jr. , Gaziano , J. M. , Xu , A. , Frei , B. , Curran‐Celantano , J. , Shwaery , G. T. , Loscalzo , J. and Vita , J. A. 1994 . Low‐dose α‐tocopherol improves and high‐dose α‐tocopherol worsens endothelial vasodilator function in cholesterol‐fed rabbits . J. Clin. Invest. , 93 : 844
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bocan , T. M. A. , Mueller , S. B. , Brown , E. Q. , Uhlendorf , P. D. , Mazur , M. J. and Newton , R. S. 1992 . Antiatherosclerotic effects of antioxidants are lesion‐specific when evaluated in hypercholesterolemic New Zealand white rabbits . Exp. Mol. Pathol. , 57 : 70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prasad , K. and Kalra , J. 1993 . Oxygen free radicals and hypercholesterolemic atherosclerosis: effect of vitamin E . Am. Heart J. , 125 : 958
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chisolm , G. M. III . 1991 . Antioxidants and atherosclerosis: a current assessment . Clin. Cardiol. , 14 (1) : 25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janero , D. R. 1991 . Therapeutic potential of vitamin E in the pathogenesis of spontaneous atherosclerosis . Free Rad. Biol. Med. , 11 : 129
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch , S. M. and Frei , B. 1994 . “ Antioxidants as anti‐atherogens: animal studies ” . In Natural Antioxidants in Human Health and Disease , Edited by: Frei , B. 353 San Diego : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gaziano , J. M. , Manson , J. E. , Buring , J. E. and Hennekens , C. H. 1992 . Dietary antioxidants and cardiovascular disease . Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. , 669 : 249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaziano , J. M. , Manson , J. E. , Hennekens , C. H. and Frei , B. 1994 . “ Natural antioxidants and cardiovascular disease: observational epidemiologic studies and randomized trials ” . In Natural Antioxidants in Human Health and Disease. , 387 San Diego : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Warner , D. D. M. , Burton , G. W. , Ingold , K. U. , Barclay , L. R. C. and Locke , S. J. 1987 . The relative contributions of vitamin E, urate, ascorbate and proteins to the total peroxyl radical‐trapping antioxidant activity of human blood plasma . Biochim. Biophys. Acta , 924 : 408
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Frei , B. , Stocker , R. and Ames , B. N. 1988 . Antioxidant defenses and lipid peroxidation in human blood plasma . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 85 : 9748
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halliwell , B. and Gutteridge , J. M. C. 1990 . The antioxidants of human extracellular fluids . Arch. Biochem. Biophys. , 280 : 1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stocker , R. and Frei , B. 1991 . “ Endogenous antioxidant defenses in human blood plasma ” . In Oxidative Stress: Oxidants and Antioxidants , Edited by: Sies , H. 213 London : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Halliwell , B. 1988 . Albumin – an important extracellular antioxidant? . Biochem. Pharmacol. , 37 : 569
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wieland , E. , Parthasarathy , S. and Steinberg , D. 1993 . Peroxidase‐dependent metal‐independent oxidation of low density lipoprotein in vitro a model for in vivo oxidation? . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 90 : 5929
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Machlin , L. J. and Bendich , A. 1987 . Free radical tissue damage: protective role of antioxidant nutrients . FASEB J. , 1 : 441
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karlsson , K. and Marklund , S. L. 1987 . Heparin‐induced release of extracellular superoxide dismutase to human blood plasma . Biochem. J. , 242 : 55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goth , L. 1989 . Origin of serum catalase in healthy subjects and in some hematologic diseases . Clin. Chim. Enzym. Commun. , 1 : 329
   Google Scholar
• Maddipati , K. R. and Marnett , L. J. 1987 . Characterization of the major hydroperoxide‐reducing activity of human plasma. Purification and properties of a selenium‐dependent glutathione peroxidase . J. Biol. Chem. , 36 : 17398
   Google Scholar
• Frei , B. , England , L. and Ames , B. N. 1989 . Ascorbate is an outstanding antioxidant in human blood plasma . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 86 : 6377
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bendich , A. , Machlin , L. J. , Scandurra , O. , Burton , G. W. and Wayner , D. D. M. 1986 . The antioxidant role of vitamin C . Adv. Free Radicals Biol. Med. , 2 : 419
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ames , B. N. , Cathcart , R. , Schwiers , E. and Hochstein , P. 1981 . Uric acid provides an antioxidant defense in humans against oxidant‐ and radical‐caused aging and cancer a hypothesis . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 78 : 6858
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stocker , R. , Glazer , A. N. and Ames , B. N. 1987 . Antioxidant activity of albumin‐bound bilirubin . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 84 : 5918
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esterbauer , H. , Striegl , G. , Puhl , H. , Oberreither , S. , Rotheneder , M. , El‐Saadani , M. and Jurgens , G. 1989 . The role of vitamin E and carotenoids in preventing oxidation of low density lipoprotein . Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. , 570 : 254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stocker , R. , Bowry , V. W. and Frei , B. 1991 . Ubiquinol‐10 protects human low density lipoprotein more efficiently against lipid peroxidation than does α‐tocopherol . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 88 : 1646
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frei , B. and Gaziano , J. M. 1993 . Content of antioxidants, preformed lipid hydroperoxides, and cholesterol as predictors of the susceptibility of human LDL to metal ion‐dependent and ‐independent oxidation . J. Lipid Res. , 34 : 2135
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D'Aquino , M. , Dunster , C. and Wilson , R. L. 1989 . Vitamin A and glutathione‐mediated free radical damage: competing reactions with polyunsatured fatty acids and vitamin C . Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. , 161 : 1199
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ylä‐Herrtualla , S. , Palinski , W. , Rosenfeld , M. E. , Steinberg , D. and Witztum , J. L. 1990 . Lipoproteins in normal and atherosclerotic aorta . Eur. Heart J. , 11E : 88S
   Google Scholar
• Vessby , B. , Gustafson , S. , Chapman , M. J. , Hellsing , K. and Lithell , H. 1987 . Lipoprotein composition of human suction‐blister interstitial fluid . J. Lipid Res. , 28 : 629
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lynch , S. M. , Morrow , J. D. , Roberts , L. J. II. and Frei , B. 1994 . Formation of non‐cyclooxygenase‐derived prostanoids (F2‐isoprostanes) in plasma and low density lipoprotein exposed to oxidative stress in vitro . J. Clin. Invest. , 93 : 998
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frei , B. , Stocker , R. , England , L. and Ames , B. N. 1990 . Ascorbate, the most effective antioxidant in human blood plasma . Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. , 264 : 155
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Frei , B. , Forte , T. , Ames , B. N. and Cross , G. E. 1991 . Gas‐phase oxidants of cigarette smoke induce lipid peroxidation and changes in lipoprotein properties in human blood plasma: protective effects of ascorbic acid . Biochem. J. , : 277 133 1991
   Google Scholar
• Frei , B. , Stocker , R. and Ames , B. N. 1992 . “ Small molecule antioxidant defenses in human extracellular fluids ” . In The Molecular Biology of Free Radical Scavenging Systems , Edited by: Scandalios , J. 23 Cold Spring Harbor, New York : CSH Laboratory Press .
   Google Scholar
• Frei , B. 1991 . Ascorbic acid protects lipids in human plasma and LDL against oxidative damage . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 54 : 1113S
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jialal , L and Grundy , S. M. 1991 . Preservation of the endogenous antioxidants in low density lipoprotein by ascorbate but not probucol during oxidative modification . J. Clin. Invest. , 87 : 597
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jialal , I. , Vega , G.L. and Grundy , S. M. 1990 . Physiologic levels of ascorbate inhibit oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein . Atherosclerosis , 82 : 185
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalyanaraman , B. , Darley‐Usmar , V. M. , Wood , J. , Joseph , J. and Parthasarathy , S. 1992 . Synergistic interaction between the probucol phenoxyl radical and ascorbic acid in inhibiting the oxidation of low density lipoprotein . J. Biol. Cherry , 267 : 6789
   Google Scholar
• Retsky , K.L. , Freeman , M.W. and Frei , B. 1993 . Ascorbic acid oxidation produce(s) protect human low density lipoprotein against atherogenic modification. Anti‐ rather than prooxidant activity of vitamin C in the presence of transition metal ions . J. Biol. Chem. , 268 : 1304
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sato , K. , Niki , E. and Shimasaki , H. 1990 . Free radical‐mediated chain oxidation of low density lipoprotein and its synergistic inhibition by vitamin E and vitamin C . Arch. Biochem. Biophys. , 279 : 402
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kagan , V. E. , Serbinova , Forte , T. , Scita , G. and Packer , L. 1992 . Recycling of vitamin E in human low‐density lipoproteins . J. Lipid. Res. , 33 : 385
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doha , T. , Burton , G. W. and Ingold , K. 1985 . Antioxidant and co‐antioxidant activity of vitamin C. The effect of vitamin C, either alone or in the presence of vitamin E or a water‐soluble vitamin E analogue, on the peroxidation of aqueous multilamellar phospholipid liposomes . Biochim. Biophys. Acta , 835 : 298
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Burton , G. W. , Wronska , U. , Stone , L. , Foster , D. O. and Ingold , K. U. 1990 . Biokinetics of dietary RRR‐α‐tocopherol in the male guinea pig at three dietary levels of vitamin C and two levels of vitamin E. Evidence that vitamin C does not “spare”; vitamin E in vivo . Lipids , 25 : 199
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies , K. J. A. , Sevanian , A. , Muakkassah‐Kelly , S. F. and Hochstein , P. 1986 . Uric acid‐iron complexes, A new aspect of the antioxidant functions of uric acid . Biochem. J. , 235 : 747
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jessup , W. , Rankin , S.M. , De Whalley , C.V. , Hoult , J. R. S. , Scott , J. and Leake , D. S. 1990 . α‐Tocopherol consumption during low‐density lipoprotein oxidation . Biochem. J. , 265 : 399
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babiy , A. V. , Gebicki , J. M. and Sullivan , D. R. 1990 . Vitamin E content and low density lipoprotein oxidizability induced by free radicals . Atherosclerosis , 81 : 175
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dieber‐Rotheneder , M. , Puhl , H. , Waeg , C. , Striegl , G. and Esterbauer , H. 1991 . Effect of oral supplementation with D‐ α‐tocopherol on the vitamin E content of human low density lipoproteins and resistance to oxidation . J. Lipid Res. , 32 : 1325
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cominacini , L. , Garbin , U. , Cenci , B. , Davoli , A. , Pasini , C. , Ratti , E. , Gaviraghi , G. , Lo Casdo , V. and Pastorino , A. M. 1991 . Predisposition to LDL oxidation during copper‐catalyzed oxidative modification and its relation to α‐tocopherol content in humans . Clin. Chim. Acta , 204 : 57
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tribble , D. L. , Holl , L. G. , Wood , P. D. and Krauss , R. M. 1992 . Variations in oxidative susceptibility among six low density lipoprotein subtractions of differing density and particle size . Atherosclerosis , 93 : 189
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Princen , H. M. G. , van Poppel , G. , Vogelezang , C. , Buytenhek , R. and Kok , F. J. 1992 . Supplementation with vitamin E but not β‐carotene in vivo protects low density lipoprotein from lipid peroxidation in vitro. Effect of cigarette smoking . Arterioscler. Thromb. , 12 : 554
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jialal , I. and Grundy , S. M. 1992 . Effect of dietary supplementation with alpha‐tocopherol on the oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein . J. Lipid Res. , 33 : 899
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reaven , P. D. , Khouw , A. , Beltz , W. F. , Parthasarathy , S. and Wltztum , J. L. 1993 . Effect of dietary antioxidant combinations in humans. Protection of LDL by vitamin E but not by β‐carotene . Arterioscler. Thromb. , 13 : 590
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reaven , P. D. and Witztum , J. L. 1993 . Comparison of supplementation of RRR‐α‐tocopherol and racemic α‐tocopherol in humans: effects on lipid levels and lipoprotein susceptibility to oxidation . Arterioscler. Thromb. , 13 : 601
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowry , V. W. , Ingold , K. U. and Stocker , R. 1992 . Vitamin E in human low‐density lipoprotein: when and how this antioxidant becomes a prooxidant . Biochem. J. , 288 : 341
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingold , K. U. , Bowry , V. W. , Stocker , R. and Walling , C. 1993 . Autoxidation of lipids and antioxidation by α‐tocopherol and ubiquinol in homogeneous solution and in aqueous dispersions of lipids: unrecognized consequences of lipid particle size as exemplified by oxidation of human low density lipoprotein . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 90 : 45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mino , M. , Miki , M. , Miyake , M. and Ogihara , T. 1989 . Nutritional assessment of vitamin E in oxidative stress . Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. , 570 : 296
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaziano , J. M. , Hatta , A. , Flynn , M. , Johnson , E. J. , Krinsky , N. I. , Ridker , P. M. , Hennekens , C. H. and Frei , B. 1994 . Supplementation with β‐carotene in vivo and in vitro does not inhibit low density lipoprotein oxidation . Atherosclerosis , in press
   Google Scholar
• Morel , D. W. and Hessler , J. R. and G. M. 1983 . Low density lipoprotein cytotoxiciry induced by free radical peroxidation of lipid . J. Lipid Res. , 24 : 1070
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jialal , I. , Norkus , E. , Cristol , L. and Grundy , S. M. 1991 . β‐Carotene inhibits the oxidative modification of low‐density lipoprotein . Biochim. Biophys. Acta , 1086 : 134
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lavy , A. , Amotz , A. B. and Aviram , M. 1993 . Preferential inhibition of LDL oxidation by the ail‐trans isomer of β‐carotene in comparison with 9‐cis β‐carotene . Eur. J. Clin. Chem. Clin. Biochem. , 31 : 83
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Burton , G. W. and Ingold , K. U. 1984 . β‐Carotene: an unusual type of lipid antioxidant . Science; , 224 : 569
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reaven , P. D. , Ferguson , F. , Navab , M. and Powell , F. L. 1994 . Susceptibility of human LDL to oxidative modification. Effects of variations in β‐carotene concentration and oxygen tension . Arterioscler. Thromb. , 14 : 1162
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harats , D. , Ben‐Nairn , M. , Dabach , Y. , Hollander , G. , Havivi , E. , Stein , O. and Stein , Y. 1990 . Effect of vitamin C and E supplementation on susceptibility of plasma lipoproteins to peroxidation induced by acute smoking. . Atherosclerosis , 85 : 47
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerster , H. 1991 . Potential role of beta‐carotene in the prevention of cardiovascular disease . Int. J. Vit. Nutr. Res. , 61 : 277
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaffney , P. T. , Buttenshaw , R. L. , Lovell , G. A. , Kerswill , W. J. and Ward , M. 1990 . β‐Carotene supplementation raises serum HDL cholesterol . Aust. N.Z. J. Med. , 1 : 365S
   Google Scholar
• Zhang , L. X. , Cooney , R. V. and Bertram , J. S. 1991 . Carotenoids enhance gap junctional communication and inhibit lipid peroxidation in C3H/10T1/2 cells: relationship to their cancer chemopreventive action . Carcinogenesis , 12 : 2109
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohr , D. , Bowry , V. W. and Stocker , R. 1992 . Dietary supplementation with coenzyme Q10 results in increased levels of ubiquinol‐10 within circulating lipoproteins and increased resistance of human low‐density lipoprotein to the initiation of lipid peroxidation . Biochim. Biophys. Acta , 1126 : 247
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keaney , J. F. Jr. and Frei , B. 1994 . “ Antioxidant protection of low‐density lipoprotein and its role in the prevention of atherosclerotic vascular disease ” . In Natural Antioxidants in Human Health and Disease , Edited by: Frei , B. 303 San Diego : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar