Vi capsular polysaccharide: Synthesis, virulence, and application

Reference

• Acharya IL, Lowe CU, Thapa R, et al. (1987). Prevention of typhoid fever in Nepal with the Vi capsular polysaccharide of Salmonella typhi. A preliminary report. N Engl J Med 317:1101–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen P, Hart CA, Saunders JR. (1987). Isolation from Klebsiella and characterization of two rcs genes that activate colanic acid capsular biosynthesis in Escherichia coli. J Gen Microbiol 133:331–40.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anish C, Goswami DG, Kanchan V, et al. (2012). The immunogenic characteristics associated with multivalent display of Vi polysaccharide antigen using biodegradable polymer particles. Biomaterials 33:6843–57.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arricau N, Hermant D, Waxin H, et al. (1998). The RcsB-RcsC regulatory system of Salmonella typhi differentially modulates the expression of invasion proteins, flagellin and Vi antigen in response to osmolarity. Mol Microbiol 29:835–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arya SC. (1997). Efficacy of Salmonella typhi Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccine in South Africa. Vaccine 15:244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Assaad U, El-Masri I, Porhomayon J, El-Solh AA. (2012). Pneumonia immunization in older adults: review of vaccine effectiveness and strategies. Clin Interv Aging 7:453–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Battesti A, Majdalani N, Gottesman S. (2011). The RpoS-mediated general stress response in Escherichia coli. Annu Rev Microbiol 65:189–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernardini ML, Fontaine A, Sansonetti PJ. (1990). The two-component regulatory system ompR-envZ controls the virulence of Shigella flexneri. J Bacteriol 172:6274–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernardini ML, Sanna MG, Fontaine A, Sansonetti PJ. (1993). OmpC is involved in invasion of epithelial cells by Shigella flexneri. Infect Immun 61:3625–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boulnois GJ, Jann K. (1989). Bacterial polysaccharide capsule synthesis, export and evolution of structural diversity. Mol Microbiol 3:1819–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brill JA, Quinlan-Walshe C, Gottesman S. (1988). Fine-structure mapping and identification of two regulators of capsule synthesis in Escherichia coli K-12. J Bacteriol 170:2599–611.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bystricky S, Szu SC. (1994). O-acetylation affects the binding properties of the carboxyl groups on the Vi bacterial polysaccharide. Biophys Chem 51:1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campos MA, Vargas MA, Regueiro V, et al. (2004). Capsule polysaccharide mediates bacterial resistance to antimicrobial peptides. Infect Immun 72:7107–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatfield SN, Dorman CJ, Hayward C, Dougan G. (1991). Role of ompR-dependent genes in Salmonella typhimurium virulence: mutants deficient in both ompC and ompF are attenuated in vivo. Infect Immun 59:449–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatterjee A, Chun WA, Chatterjee AK. (1990). Isolation and characterization of an rcsA-like gene of Erwinia amylovora that activates extracellular polysaccharide production in Erwinia species, Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 3:144–8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christman MF, Storz G, Ames BN. (1989). OxyR, a positive regulator of hydrogen peroxide-inducible genes in Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium, is homologous to a family of bacterial regulatory proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 86:3484–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke DJ. (2010). The Rcs phosphorelay: more than just a two-component pathway. Future Microbiol 5:1173–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comstock LE, Kasper DL. (2006). Bacterial glycans: key mediators of diverse host immune responses. Cell 126:847–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crump JA, Luby SP, Mintz ED. (2004). The global burden of typhoid fever. Bull World Health Organ 82:346–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuthbertson L, Mainprize IL, Naismith JH, Whitfield C. (2009). Pivotal roles of the outer membrane polysaccharide export and polysaccharide copolymerase protein families in export of extracellular polysaccharides in gram-negative bacteria. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 73:155–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuthbertson L, Kos V, Whitfield C. (2010). ABC transporters involved in export of cell surface glycoconjugates. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 74:341–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daniels EM, Schneerson R, Egan WM, et al. (1989). Characterization of the Salmonella paratyphi C Vi polysaccharide. Infect Immun 57:3159–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dorman CJ, Chatfield S, Higgins CF, et al. (1989). Characterization of porin and ompR mutants of a virulent strain of Salmonella typhimurium: ompR mutants are attenuated in vivo. Infect Immun 57:2136–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egger LA, Park H, Inouye M. (1997). Signal transduction via the histidyl-aspartyl phosphorelay. Genes Cells 2:167–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fang FC, Libby SJ, Buchmeier NA, et al. (1992). The alternative sigma factor katF (rpoS) regulates Salmonella virulence. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89:11978–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Felix A, Pitt RM. (1934). A new antigen of B. typhosus: its relation to virulence and to active and passive immunization. Lancet 224:186–91.
   Google Scholar
• Forst SA, Roberts DL. (1994). Signal transduction by the EnvZ-OmpR phosphotransfer system in bacteria. Res Microbiol 145:363–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Froeschle JE, Decker MD. (2010). Duration of Vi antibodies in participants vaccinated with Typhim Vi (Typhoid Vi polysaccharide vaccine) in an area not endemic for typhoid fever. Vaccine 28:1451–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez-Fernandez A, Faro J, Fernandez C. (2008). Immune responses to polysaccharides: lessons from humans and mice. Vaccine 26:292–300.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gottesman S, Trisler P, Torres-Cabassa A. (1985). Regulation of capsular polysaccharide synthesis in Escherichia coli K-12: characterization of three regulatory genes. J Bacteriol 162:1111–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haneda T, Winter SE, Butler BP, et al. (2009). The capsule-encoding viaB locus reduces intestinal inflammation by a Salmonella pathogenicity island 1-independent mechanism. Infect Immun 77:2932–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardt WD, Urlaub H, Galan JE. (1998). A substrate of the centisome 63 type III protein secretion system of Salmonella typhimurium is encoded by a cryptic bacteriophage. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95:2574–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart PJ, O'Shaughnessy CM, Siggins MK, et al. (2016). Differential killing of Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhi by antibodies targeting Vi and lipopolysaccharide O:9 antigen. PLoS One 11:e0145945.
   Google Scholar
• Hashimoto Y, Li N, Yokoyama H, Ezaki T. (1993). Complete nucleotide sequence and molecular characterization of ViaB region encoding Vi antigen in Salmonella typhi. J Bacteriol 175:4456–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hashimoto Y, Khan AQ, Ezaki T. (1996). Positive autoregulation of vipR expression in ViaB region-encoded Vi antigen of Salmonella typhi. J Bacteriol 178:1430–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hashimoto Y, Khan AQ. (1997). Comparison of ViaB regions of Vi-positive organisms. FEMS Microbiol Lett 157:55–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hengge-Aronis R. (2002). Signal transduction and regulatory mechanisms involved in control of the sigma(S) (RpoS) subunit of RNA polymerase. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 66:373–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hessel L, Debois H, Fletcher M, Dumas R. (1999). Experience with Salmonella typhi Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccine. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 18:609–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hestrin S. (1949). The reaction of acetylcholine and other carboxylic acid derivatives with hydroxylamine, and its analytical application. J Biol Chem 180:249–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirose K, Ezaki T, Miyake M, et al. (1997). Survival of Vi-capsulated and Vi-deleted Salmonella typhi strains in cultured macrophage expressing different levels of CD14 antigen. FEMS Microbiol Lett 147:259–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollenstein K, Dawson RJ, Locher KP. (2007). Structure and mechanism of ABC transporter proteins. Curr Opin Struct Biol 17:412–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hornick RB, Greisman SE, Woodward TE, et al. (1970a). Typhoid fever: pathogenesis and immunologic control. 2. N Engl J Med 283:739–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hornick RB, Greisman SE, Woodward TE, et al. (1970b). Typhoid fever: pathogenesis and immunologic control. N Engl J Med 283:686–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houng HS, Noon KF, Ou JT, Baron LS. (1992). Expression of Vi antigen in Escherichia coli K-12: characterization of ViaB from Citrobacter freundii and identity of ViaA with RcsB. J Bacteriol 174:5910–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janis C, Grant AJ, McKinley TJ, et al. (2011). In vivo regulation of the Vi antigen in Salmonella and induction of immune responses with an in vivo-inducible promoter. Infect Immun 79:2481–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jansen AM, Hall LJ, Clare S, et al. (2011). A Salmonella typhimurium–typhi genomic chimera: a model to study Vi polysaccharide capsule function in vivo. PLoS Pathog 7:e1002131.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson EM, Krauskopf B, Baron LS. (1965). Genetic mapping of Vi and somatic antigenic determinants in Salmonella. J Bacteriol 90:302–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson EM, Krauskopf B, Baron LS. (1966). Genetic analysis of the ViA-his chromosomal region in Salmonella. J Bacteriol 92:1457–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson EM, Baron LS. (1969). Genetic transfer of the Vi antigen from Salmonella typhosa to Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol 99:358–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalan L, Wright GD. (2011). Antibiotic adjuvants: multicomponent anti-infective strategies. Expert Rev Mol Med 13:e5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keddy KH, Klugman KP, Hansford CF, et al. (1999). Persistence of antibodies to the Salmonella typhi Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccine in South African school children ten years after immunization. Vaccine 17:110–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keitel WA, Bond NL, Zahradnik JM, et al. (1994). Clinical and serological responses following primary and booster immunization with Salmonella typhi Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccines. Vaccine 12:195–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan MI, Soofi SB, Ochiai RL, Group DTKVES, et al. (2012). Effectiveness of Vi capsular polysaccharide typhoid vaccine among children: a cluster randomized trial in Karachi, Pakistan. Vaccine 30:5389–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klugman KP, Gilbertson IT, Koornhof HJ, et al. (1987). Protective activity of Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccine against typhoid fever. Lancet 2:1165–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klugman KP, Koornhof HJ, Robbins JB, Le Cam NN. (1996). Immunogenicity, efficacy and serological correlate of protection of Salmonella typhi Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccine three years after immunization. Vaccine 14:435–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolyva S, Waxin H, Popoff MY. (1992). The Vi antigen of Salmonella typhi: molecular analysis of the viaB locus. J Gen Microbiol 138:297–304.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kothari S, Kothari N, Kim JA, et al. (2013). A novel method for purification of Vi capsular polysaccharide produced by Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhi. Vaccine 31:4714–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroncke KD, Boulnois G, Roberts I, et al. (1990). Expression of the Escherichia coli K5 capsular antigen: immunoelectron microscopic and biochemical studies with recombinant E. coli. J Bacteriol 172:1085–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroncke KD, Orskov I, Orskov F, et al. (1990). Electron microscopic study of coexpression of adhesive protein capsules and polysaccharide capsules in Escherichia coli. Infect Immun 58:2710–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakshman R, Finn A. (2002). Meningococcal serogroup C conjugate vaccine. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2:87–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanata CF, Levine MM, Ristori C, et al. (1983). Vi serology in detection of chronic Salmonella typhi carriers in an endemic area. Lancet 2:441–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landy M, Webster ME. (1952). Studies on Vi antigen. III. Immunological properties of purified Vi antigen derived from Escherichia coli 5396/38. J Immunol 69:143–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landy M. (1954). Studies on Vi antigen. VI. Immunization of human beings with purified Vi antigen. Am J Hyg 60:52–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landy M, Webster ME, Sagin JF. (1954). Studies on Vi antigen. V. Comparison of the immunological properties of Vi antigens derived from V form Enterobacteriaceae. J Immunol 73:23–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landy M. (1957). Studies on Vi antigen. VII. Characteristics of the immune response in the mouse. Am J Hyg 65:81–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Minor L, Nicolle P. (1964). Sur deux souches de Salmonella dublin possédant l'antigène Vi. Ann Inst Pasteur 107:550–6.
   Google Scholar
• Lesinski GB, Westerink MA. (2001). Vaccines against polysaccharide antigens. Curr Drug Targets Infect Disord 1:325–34.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liaquat S, Sarwar Y, Ali A, Haque A. (2015). Comparative growth analysis of capsulated (Vi+) and acapsulated (Vi-) Salmonella typhi isolates in human blood. EXCLI J 14:213–19.
   Google Scholar
• Lin FY, Ho VA, Khiem HB, et al. (2001). The efficacy of a Salmonella typhi Vi conjugate vaccine in two-to-five-year-old children. N Engl J Med 344:1263–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liston SD, Ovchinnikova OG, Whitfield C. (2016). Unique lipid anchor attaches Vi antigen capsule to the surface of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113:6719–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loewen PC, Hengge-Aronis R. (1994). The role of the sigma factor sigma S (KatF) in bacterial global regulation. Annu Rev Microbiol 48:53–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Looney RJ, Steigbigel RT. (1986). Role of the Vi antigen of Salmonella typhi in resistance to host defense in vitro. J Lab Clin Med 108:506–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mariscotti JF, Garcia-Del Portillo F. (2008). Instability of the Salmonella RcsCDB signalling system in the absence of the attenuator IgaA. Microbiology (Reading, Engl.) 154:1372–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mariscotti JF, Garcia-del Portillo F. (2009). Genome expression analyses revealing the modulation of the Salmonella Rcs regulon by the attenuator IgaA. J Bacteriol 191:1855–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall JL, Flores-Langarica A, Kingsley RA, et al. (2012). The capsular polysaccharide Vi from Salmonella typhi is a B1b antigen. J Immunol 189:5527–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mekalanos JJ. (1992). Environmental signals controlling expression of virulence determinants in bacteria. J Bacteriol 174:1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller JF, Mekalanos JJ, Falkow S. (1989). Coordinate regulation and sensory transduction in the control of bacterial virulence. Science 243:916–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller VL, Mekalanos JJ. (1988). A novel suicide vector and its use in construction of insertion mutations: osmoregulation of outer membrane proteins and virulence determinants in Vibrio cholerae requires toxR. J Bacteriol 170:2575–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nilsson IM, Lee JC, Bremell T, et al. (1997). The role of staphylococcal polysaccharide microcapsule expression in septicemia and septic arthritis. Infect Immun 65:4216–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obaro SK. (2002). The new pneumococcal vaccine. Clin Microbiol Infect 8:623–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ou JT, Baron LS, Rubin FA, Kopecko DJ. (1988). Specific insertion and deletion of insertion sequence 1-like DNA element causes the reversible expression of the virulence capsular antigen Vi of Citrobacter freundii in Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 85:4402–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ou JT, Huang CJ, Houng HS, Baron LS. (1992). Role of IS1 in the conversion of virulence (Vi) antigen expression in Enterobacteriaceae. Mol Gen Genet 234:228–32.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Overbosch D, Peyron F, Picot N, et al. (2005). Combined typhoid fever and hepatitis A vaccine: comparison of immunogenicity and safety to concomitant monovalent vaccine over 3 years. J Travel Med 12:319–26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pakkanen SH, Kantele JM, Savolainen LE, et al. (2015). Specific and cross-reactive immune response to oral Salmonella Typhi Ty21a and parenteral Vi capsular polysaccharide typhoid vaccines administered concomitantly. Vaccine 33:451–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavelka MS Jr, Wright LF, Silver RP. (1991). Identification of two genes, kpsM and kpsT, in region 3 of the polysialic acid gene cluster of Escherichia coli K1. J Bacteriol 173:4603–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavelka MS Jr, Hayes SF, Silver RP. (1994). Characterization of KpsT, the ATP-binding component of the ABC-transporter involved with the export of capsular polysialic acid in Escherichia coli K1. J Biol Chem 269:20149–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pickard D, Li J, Roberts M, et al. (1994). Characterization of defined ompR mutants of Salmonella typhi: ompR is involved in the regulation of Vi polysaccharide expression. Infect Immun 62:3984–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pickard D, Wain J, Baker S, et al. (2003). Composition, acquisition, and distribution of the Vi exopolysaccharide-encoding Salmonella enterica pathogenicity island SPI-7. J Bacteriol 185:5055–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pickard D, Kingsley RA, Hale C, et al. (2013). A genomewide mutagenesis screen identifies multiple genes contributing to Vi capsular expression in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. J Bacteriol 195:1320–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pigeon RP, Silver RP. (1994). Topological and mutational analysis of KpsM, the hydrophobic component of the ABC-transporter involved in the export of polysialic acid in Escherichia coli K1. Mol Microbiol 14:871–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poolman J, Borrow R. (2011). Hyporesponsiveness and its clinical implications after vaccination with polysaccharide or glycoconjugate vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines 10:307–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raffatellu M, Chessa D, Wilson RP, et al. (2005). The Vi capsular antigen of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi reduces Toll-like receptor-dependent interleukin-8 expression in the intestinal mucosa. Infect Immun 73:3367–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raffatellu M, Chessa D, Wilson RP, et al. (2006). Capsule-mediated immune evasion: a new hypothesis explaining aspects of typhoid fever pathogenesis. Infect Immun 74:19–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raffatellu M, Santos RL, Chessa D, et al. (2007). The capsule encoding the viaB locus reduces interleukin-17 expression and mucosal innate responses in the bovine intestinal mucosa during infection with Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi. Infect Immun 75:4342–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robbins JD, Robbins JB. (1984). Reexamination of the protective role of the capsular polysaccharide (Vi antigen) of Salmonella typhi. J Infect Dis 150:436–49.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roggelin L, Vinnemeier CD, Fischer-Herr J, et al. (2015). Serological response following re-vaccination with Salmonella typhi Vi-capsular polysaccharide vaccines in healthy adult travelers. Vaccine 33:4141–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romeu B, Lastre M, Reyes L, et al. (2014). Nasal immunization of mice with AFCo1 or AFPL1 plus capsular polysaccharide Vi from Salmonella typhi induces cellular response and memory B and T cell responses. Vaccine 32:6971–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santander J, Wanda SY, Nickerson CA, Curtiss R 3rd. (2007). Role of RpoS in fine-tuning the synthesis of Vi capsular polysaccharide in Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi. Infect Immun 75:1382–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santander J, Roland KL, Curtiss R 3rd. (2008). Regulation of Vi capsular polysaccharide synthesis in Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi. J Infect Dev Ctries 2:412–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santhanam SK, Dutta D, Parween F, Qadri A. (2014). The virulence polysaccharide Vi released by Salmonella Typhi targets membrane prohibitin to inhibit T-cell activation. J Infect Dis 210:79–88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seth-Smith HM. (2008). SPI-7: Salmonella's Vi-encoding Pathogenicity Island. J Infect Dev Ctries 2:267–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma A, Qadri A. (2004). Vi polysaccharide of Salmonella typhi targets the prohibitin family of molecules in intestinal epithelial cells and suppresses early inflammatory responses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101:17492–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith AN, Boulnois GJ, Roberts IS. (1990). Molecular analysis of the Escherichia coli K5 kps locus: identification and characterization of an inner-membrane capsular polysaccharide transport system. Mol Microbiol 4:1863–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snellings NJ, Johnson EM, Baron LS. (1977). Genetic basis of Vi antigen expression in Salmonella paratyphi C. J Bacteriol 131:57–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snellings NJ, Johnson EM, Kopecko DJ, et al. (1981). Genetic regulation of variable Vi antigen expression in a strain of Citrobacter freundii. J Bacteriol 145:1010–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spinosa MR, Progida C, Tala A, et al. (2007). The Neisseria meningitidis capsule is important for intracellular survival in human cells. Infect Immun 75:3594–603.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Standish AJ, Salim AA, Zhang H, et al. (2012). Chemical inhibition of bacterial protein tyrosine phosphatase suppresses capsule production. PLoS One 7:e36312.
   Google Scholar
• Stout V, Torres-Cabassa A, Maurizi M, et al. (1991). RcsA, an unstable positive regulator of capsular polysaccharide synthesis. J Bacteriol 173:1738–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sur D, Manna B, Chakrabarty N, et al. (2009). Vaccine desirability during an effectiveness trial of the typhoid fever polysaccharide Vi vaccine in Kolkata India. Hum Vaccin 5:614–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sur D, Ochiai RL, Bhattacharya SK, et al. (2009). A cluster-randomized effectiveness trial of Vi typhoid vaccine in India. N Engl J Med 361:335–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szu SC, Li XR, Stone AL, Robbins JB. (1991). Relation between structure and immunologic properties of the Vi capsular polysaccharide. Infect Immun 59:4555–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szu SC, Bystricky S. (2003). Physical, chemical, antigenic, and immunologic characterization of polygalacturonan, its derivatives, and Vi antigen from Salmonella typhi. Meth Enzymol 363:552–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tacket CO, Losonsky G, Taylor DN, et al. (1991). Lack of immune response to the Vi component of a Vi-positive variant of the Salmonella typhi live oral vaccine strain Ty21a in human studies. J Infect Dis 163:901–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tacket CO, Pasetti MF, Sztein MB, et al. (2004). Immune responses to an oral typhoid vaccine strain that is modified to constitutively express Vi capsular polysaccharide. J Infect Dis 190:565–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takeda S, Fujisawa Y, Matsubara M, et al. (2001). A novel feature of the multistep phosphorelay in Escherichia coli: a revised model of the RcsC -> YojN -> RcsB signalling pathway implicated in capsular synthesis and swarming behaviour. Mol Microbiol 40:440–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tartaglia LA, Storz G, Ames BN. (1989). Identification and molecular analysis of oxyR-regulated promoters important for the bacterial adaptation to oxidative stress. J Mol Biol 210:709–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tartera C, Metcalf ES. (1993). Osmolarity and growth phase overlap in regulation of Salmonella typhi adherence to and invasion of human intestinal cells. Infect Immun 61:3084–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor K. (1965). Enzymatic deacetylation of Vi-polysaccharide by Vi-phage. II. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 20:752–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thakker M, Park JS, Carey V, Lee JC. (1998). Staphylococcus aureus serotype 5 capsular polysaccharide is antiphagocytic and enhances bacterial virulence in a murine bacteremia model. Infect Immun 66:5183–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tran QT, Gomez G, Khare S, et al. (2010). The Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi Vi capsular antigen is expressed after the bacterium enters the ileal mucosa. Infect Immun 78:527–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsolis RM, Young GM, Solnick JV, Baumler AJ. (2008). From bench to bedside: stealth of enteroinvasive pathogens. Nat Rev Microbiol 6:883–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tzianabos AO, Wang JY, Lee JC. (2001). Structural rationale for the modulation of abscess formation by Staphylococcus aureus capsular polysaccharides. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98:9365–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Virlogeux I, Waxin H, Ecobichon C, Popoff MY. (1995). Role of the viaB locus in synthesis, transport and expression of Salmonella typhi Vi antigen. Microbiology 141:3039–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Virlogeux I, Waxin H, Ecobichon C, et al. (1996). Characterization of the rcsA and rcsB genes from Salmonella typhi: rcsB through tviA is involved in regulation of Vi antigen synthesis. J Bacteriol 178:1691–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vos Q, Lees A, Wu ZQ, et al. (2000). B-cell activation by T-cell-independent type 2 antigens as an integral part of the humoral immune response to pathogenic microorganisms. Immunol Rev 176:154–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wain J, House D, Zafar A, et al. (2005). Vi antigen expression in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi clinical isolates from Pakistan. J Clin Microbiol 43:1158–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wain J, Hendriksen RS, Mikoleit ML, et al. (2014). Typhoid fever. Lancet 385:1136–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang JY, Noriega FR, Galen JE, et al. (2000). Constitutive expression of the Vi polysaccharide capsular antigen in attenuated Salmonella enterica serovar typhi oral vaccine strain CVD 909. Infect Immun 68:4647–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang LC, Morgan LK, Godakumbura P, et al. (2012). The inner membrane histidine kinase EnvZ senses osmolality via helix-coil transitions in the cytoplasm. EMBO J 31:2648–59.
   Google Scholar
• Wangdi T, Lee CY, Spees AM, et al. (2014). The Vi capsular polysaccharide enables Salmonella enterica serovar typhi to evade microbe-guided neutrophil chemotaxis. PLoS Pathog 10:e1004306.
   Google Scholar
• Ward J. (1991). Prevention of invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b disease: lessons from vaccine efficacy trials. Vaccine 9:S17–S24. Discussion S25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster ME, Landy M, Freeman ME. (1952). Studies on Vi antigen. II. Purification of Vi antigen from Escherichia coli 5395/38. J Immunol 69:135–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wetter M, Goulding D, Pickard D, et al. (2012). Molecular characterization of the viaB locus encoding the biosynthetic machinery for Vi capsule formation in Salmonella Typhi. PLoS One 7:e45609.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitfield C. (2006). Biosynthesis and assembly of capsular polysaccharides in Escherichia coli. Annu Rev Biochem 75:39–68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. (1994). WHO technical reports series, No. 840; Requirements for Vi polysaccharide typhoid vaccine. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
   Google Scholar
• Willis LM, Whitfield C. (2013). Structure, biosynthesis, and function of bacterial capsular polysaccharides synthesized by ABC transporter-dependent pathways. Carbohydr Res 378:35–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson RP, Raffatellu M, Chessa D, et al. (2008). The Vi-capsule prevents Toll-like receptor 4 recognition of Salmonella. Cell Microbiol 10:876–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson RP, Winter SE, Spees AM, et al. (2011). The Vi capsular polysaccharide prevents complement receptor 3-mediated clearance of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi. Infect Immun 79:830–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winter SE, Raffatellu M, Wilson RP, et al. (2008). The Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi regulator TviA reduces interleukin-8 production in intestinal epithelial cells by repressing flagellin secretion. Cell Microbiol 10:247–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winter SE, Winter MG, Thiennimitr P, et al. (2009). The TviA auxiliary protein renders the Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi RcsB regulon responsive to changes in osmolarity. Mol Microbiol 74:175–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winter SE, Winter MG, Godinez I, et al. (2010). A rapid change in virulence gene expression during the transition from the intestinal lumen into tissue promotes systemic dissemination of Salmonella. PLoS Pathog 6:e1001060.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong KH, Feeley JC, Northrup RS, Forlines ME. (1974). Vi antigen from Salmonella typhosa and immunity against typhoid fever. I. Isolation and immunologic properties in animals. Infect Immun 9:348–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xie X, Li A, Du H, et al. (2010). Expression of tviA is transiently repressed by Hfq in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi at hyperosmotic stress. Microb Pathog 49:54–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang HH, Wu CG, Xie GZ, et al. (2001). Efficacy trial of Vi polysaccharide vaccine against typhoid fever in south-western China. Bull World Health Organ 79:625–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang Y, Inouye M. (1991). Intermolecular complementation between two defective mutant signal-transducing receptors of Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 88:11057–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang Y, Inouye M. (1993). Requirement of both kinase and phosphatase activities of an Escherichia coli receptor (Taz1) for ligand-dependent signal transduction. J Mol Biol 231:335–42.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang H, Zhou Y, Bao H, Liu HW. (2006). Vi antigen biosynthesis in Salmonella typhi: characterization of UDP-N-acetylglucosamine C-6 dehydrogenase (TviB) and UDP-N-acetylglucosaminuronic acid C-4 epimerase (TviC). Biochemistry 45:8163–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang XL, Morris C, Hackett J. (1997). Molecular cloning, nucleotide sequence, and function of a site-specific recombinase encoded in the major 'pathogenicity island' of Salmonella typhi. Gene 202:139–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang XL, Tsui IS, Yip CM, et al. (2000). Salmonella enterica Serovar typhi uses type IVB pili to enter human intestinal epithelial cells. Infect Immun 68:3067–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao L, Ezak T, Li ZY, et al. (2001). Vi-suppressed wild strain Salmonella typhi cultured in high osmolarity is hyperinvasive toward epithelial cells and destructive of Peyer's patches. Microbiol Immunol 45:149–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar