References
- Ainsa, T. (1989). Effects of computers and training in Head Start curriculum. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 16, 72–78.
- Armstrong, A., & Casement, C. (2000). The child and the machine: How computers put our children’s education at risk. Beltsville, MD: Robins Lane Press.
- Becker, H. J. (2000). Who’s wired and who’s not: Children’s access to and use of computer technology. The Future of Children, 10(2), 44–75. doi:10.2307/1602689
- Berk, L. E., & Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children’s learning: Vygotsky and early childhood education. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
- Bittman, M., Rutherford, L., Brown, J., & Unsworth, L. (2011). Digital natives? New and old media and children’s outcomes. Australian Journal of Education, 55(2), 161–175
- Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. (1996). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to early childhood education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
- Brinkley, V. M., & Watson, J. A. (1987–1988). Effects of a microworld training experience on sorting tasks by young children. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 16, 349–364. doi:10.2190/RTCD-NQUX-CK3L-H3MW
- Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1987). Application of hierarchical linear models to assessing change. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 147–158. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.101.1.147
- Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
- Calvert, S. L., Rideout, V. J., Woolard, J. L., Barr, R. F., & Strouse, G. A. (2005). Age, ethnicity, and socioeconomic patterns in early computer use: A national survey. American Behavioral Scientist, 48(5), 590–607. doi:10.1177/0002764204271508
- Chatterji, M. (2006). Reading achievement gaps, correlates, and moderators of early reading achievement: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS) kindergarten to first grade sample. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(3), 489–507. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.98.3.489
- Clements, D. H. (1994). The uniqueness of the computer as a learning tool: Insights from research and practice. In J. L. Wright & D. D. Shade (Eds.), Young children: Active learners in a technological age (pp. 31–49). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
- Clements, D. H. (1999). Effective use of computers with young children. In J. V. Copley (Ed.), Mathematics in the early years (pp. 119–128). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
- Clements, D. H. (2002). Computers in early childhood mathematics. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 3(2), 160–181. doi:10.2304/ciec.2002.3.2.2
- Clements, D. H., & Gullo, D. F. (1984). Effect of computer programming on young children’s cognition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 1051–1058. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.76.6.1051
- Clements, D. H., & Nastasi, B. K. (1993). Electronic media and early childhood education. In B. Spodek (Ed.), Handbook of research in the education of young children (pp. 251–275). New York, NY: Macmillan.
- Clements, D. H., Nastasi, B. K., & Swaminathan, S. (1993). Young children and computers: Crossroads and directions from research. Young Children, 48(2), 56–64.
- Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2003). Strip mining for gold: Research and policy in educational technology—A response to “Fool’s Gold.” Educational Technology Review, 11(1), 7–69.
- Cordes, C., & Miller, E. (2000). Fool’s gold: A critical look at computers in childhood. Retrieved from the Alliance for Childhood website: http://allianceforchildhood.net/projects/computers/computer_reports.htm
- Donohue, W. A., Borgh, K., & Dickson, W. P. (1987). Computers in early childhood education. Journal of Research in Early Childhood Education, 2(1), 6–16. doi:10.1080/02568548709594918
- Duncan, G. J., Dowsett, C. J., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A. C., Klebanov, P., … Japel, C. (2007). School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1428–1446. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1428
- Faraway, J. J. (2002). Practical regression and ANOVA using R. Retrieved from https://cran.r-project.org/doc/contrib/Faraway-PRA.pdf
- Fiorni, M. (2010). The effect of home computer use on children’s cognitive and non-cognitive skills. Economics of Education Review, 29, 55–72. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2009.06.006
- Fish, A. M., Li, X., McCarrick, K., Butler, S. T., Stanton, B., Brumitt, G. A., … Partridge, T. (2008). Early childhood computer experience and cognitive development among urban low-income preschoolers. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 38(1), 97–113. doi:10.2190/EC.38.1.e
- Fletcher-Flinn, C. M., & Gravatt, B. (1995). The efficacy of computer assisted introduction (CAI): A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 12, 219–242. doi:10.2190/51D4-F6L3-JQHU-9M31
- Freidman, S. (2016, May 10). STEM starts early! Retrieved from the National Association for the Education of Young Children website: http://www.naeyc.org/stem-starts-early
- Goodwin, L. D., Goodwin, W. L., & Garel, M. B. (1986). Use of microcomputers with preschoolers: A review of the literature. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 1(3), 269–286. doi:10.1016/0885-2006(86)90034-7
- Goodwin, L. D., Goodwin, W. L., Nansel, A., & Helm, C. P. (1986). Cognitive and affective effects of various types of microcomputer use by preschoolers. American Educational Research Journal, 23, 348–356. doi:10.3102/00028312023003348
- Gray, L., & Lewis, L. (2009). Educational technology in public school districts: Fall 2008 (NCES 2010-003). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
- Grover, S. C. (1986). A field study of the use of cognitive-developmental principles in microcomputer design for young children. Journal of Educational Research, 79, 325–332. doi:10.1080/00220671.1986.10885701
- Haugland, S. W. (1992). The effect of computer software on preschool children’s developmental gains. Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 3, 15–30.
- Haugland, S. W. (1997). How teachers use computers in early childhood classrooms. Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 8, 3–14.
- Haugland, S. W., & Wright, J. L. (1997). Young children and technology: A world of discovery. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
- Hohlfeld, T. N., Ritzhaupt, A. D., Barron, A. E., & Kemker, K. (2008). Examining the digital divide in K-12 public schools: Four-year trends for supporting ICT literacy in Florida. Computers & Education, 51, 1648–1663. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.04.002
- Howard, J. R., Eatson, J. A., Brinkley, V. M., & Ingels-Young, G. (1994). Comprehension monitoring, stylistic differences, pre-math knowledge, and transfer: A comprehensive pre-math/spatial development computer-assisted instruction (CAI) and Logo curriculum designed to test their effects. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 11(2), 91–105. doi:10.2190/8WK8-Q6T1-2V0R-K2RW
- Howell, R. D., Scott, P. B., & Diamond, J. (1987). The effects of “instant” LOGO computing language on the cognitive development of very young children. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 3, 249–260. doi:10.2190/A0QK-HB7A-RXQB-70NC
- Hungate, H. (1982). Computers in the kindergarten. The Computing Teacher, 9, 15–18.
- Janisse, H. C., Bhavnagri, N., Li, X., Butler, S. T., Stanton, B., & Johns, S. E. (2014). Impact of classroom computer availability on preschoolers’ social interactions. National Head Start Association: Dialog, 17(3), 16–34.
- Judge, S., Puckett, K., & Bell, S. M. (2006). Closing the digital divide: Update from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. Journal of Educational Research, 100(1), 52–60. doi:10.3200/JOER.100.1.52-60
- Kafai, Y. B., & Sutton, S. (1999). Elementary school students’ computer and Internet use at home: Current trend and issues. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 21(3), 345–362. doi:10.2190/A0AF-YJ73-Q6BE-1K5C
- Lehrer, R., Harckham, L. D., Archer, P., & Pruzek, R. M. (1986). Microcomputer-based instruction in special education. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 2, 237–355. doi:10.2190/CR5T-YFNL-W4TX-LN3A
- Lepper, M. R., & Gurtner, J. (1989). Children and computers: Approaching the twenty-first century. American Psychologist, 44(2), 170–178. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.44.2.170
- Li, X., & Atkins, M. S. (2004). Early childhood computer experience and cognitive and motor development. Pediatrics, 113(6), 1715–1722. doi:10.1542/peds.113.6.1715
- Li, X., Atkins, M. S., & Stanton, B. (2006). Effects of home and school computer use on school readiness and cognitive development among Head Start children: A randomized controlled pilot trial. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 52(2), 69–93. doi:10.1353/mpq.2006.0010
- Mathews, J. S., Ponitz, C. C., & Morrison, F. J. (2009). Early gender differences in self-regulation and academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(3), 689–704. doi:10.1037/a0014240
- McCarrick, K., & Li, X. (2007). Buried treasure: The impact of computer use on young children’s social, cognitive, language development and motivation. Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education Journal, 15(1), 73–95.
- McCarrick, K., Li, X., Fish, A. M., Holtrop, T., Bhavnagri, N. P., Stanton, B., … Partridge, T. (2007). Parental involvement in young children’s computer use and cognitive development. NHSA Dialog, 10(2), 67–82. doi:10.1080/15240750701436410
- McCarthy, D. (1972). McCarthy scales of children’s abilities. New York, NY: Psychological Corporation.
- McCollister, T. S., Burts, D. C., Wright, V. L., & Hildreth, G. J. (1986). Effects of computer-assisted instruction and teacher-assisted instruction on arithmetic task achievement scores of kindergarten children. Journal of Educational Research, 80, 121–125. doi:10.1080/00220671.1986.10885735
- McManis, L. D. (2014). Research basis for Hatch innovations: Solutions for success in the early learning environment. Retrieved from the Hatch website: http://www.hatchearlylearning.com/documents/research_basis_for_hatch_innovations.pdf
- McManis, L. D., & Parks, J. (2011). Evaluating educational technology for early learners. Winston-Salem, NC: Hatch Early Learning. Retrieved from http://www.hatchearlychildhood.com//pages/evaluating-technology-for-early-learners
- Miller, M. D., & McInerney, W. D. (1995). Effects on achievement of a home/school computer project. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 27(2), 198–210.
- National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2012). NAEYC position statement: Technology and interactive media as tools in early childhood education programs serving children birth through age 8. Retrieved from http://www.naeyc.org/content/technology-and-young-children
- National Conference of State Legislatures. (2017, February 23). Early STEM education. Retrieved from http://www.ncsl.org/research/education/early-stem-education.aspx
- Niemiec, R. P., & Walberg, H. J. (1985). Computers and achievement in the elementary schools. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 1, 435–440. doi:10.2190/7TP6-GYVE-1V8F-RGV7
- Osborne, J. W. (2000). Advantages of hierarchical linear modeling. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 7(1). Retrieved from https://www.learntechlib.org/p/93454/
- Parsad, B., & Jones, J. (2005). Internet access in U.S. public schools and classrooms: 1994–2003 (NCES 2005-015). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
- Plowman, L., & Steven, C. (2005). Children, play, and computers in pre-school education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(2), 145–157. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2005.00449.x
- Rathbun, A. H., West, J., & Hausken, E. G. (2003). Young children’s access to computers in the home and at school in 1999 and 2000 (NCES 2003-036). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
- Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Raudenbush, S. W., Bryk, A. S., Cheong, Y. F., & Congdon, R. (2004). HLM 6: Hierarchical and nonlinear modeling. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International.
- Rhee, M., & Bhavnagri, N. (1991). Four year old children’s peer interactions when playing with a computer (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED342466). Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED342466.pdf
- Ritzhaupt, A. D., Liu, F., Dawson, K., & Barron, A. E. (2013). Differences in student information and communication technology literacy based on socio-economic status, ethnicity, and gender: Evidence of a digital divide in Florida schools. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 45(4), 291–307. doi:10.1080/15391523.2013.10782607
- Schetz, K. F. (1994). An examination of software used with enhancement for preschool discourse skill improvement. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 11, 51–71. doi:10.2190/237D-T6CG-8D8H-DWPD
- Scoter, J. V., Ellis, D., & Railsback, J. (2001). Technology in early childhood education: Finding the balance. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratories.
- Sheingold, K. (1986). The microcomputer as a symbolic medium. In P. Campbell & G. Fein (Eds.), Young children and microcomputers (pp. 25–34). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
- Shute, R., & Miksad, J. (1997). Computer assisted instruction and cognitive development in preschoolers. Child Study Journal, 27, 237–253.
- Sivin-Kachala, J., & Bialo, E. R. (1994). Report on the effectiveness of technology in schools, 1990–1994. Washington, DC: Software Publishers Association.
- Smerdon, B., Cronen, S., Lanahan, L., Anderson, J., Iannotti, N., & Angeles, J. (2000). Teachers’ tools for the 21st century: A report on teachers’ use of technology (NCES 2000-102). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
- Sneideman, J. M. (2013, December). Engaging children in STEM education early! Retrieved from the North American Association for Environmental Education website: http://naturalstart.org/feature-stories/engaging-children-stem-education-early
- Swigger, K., & Swigger, B. (1984). Social patterns and computer use among preschool children. Association for Educational Data Systems Journal, 17(3), 35–41.
- Synder, T. D., De Brey, C., & Dillow, S. A. (2016). Digest of educational statistics 2014 (NCES 2016-006). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
- Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
- Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Vygotsky, L. S. (1981). The instrumental method in psychology. In J. V. Wertsch (Ed.), The concept of activity in Soviet psychology (pp. 134–143). Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.
- Williams, R. A. (1984). Preschoolers and the computer. Arithmetic Teacher, 31(8), 39–42.
- Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 89–100. doi:10.1111/jcpp.1976.17.issue-2