Government sponsorship and nature of patenting activity of US universities and corporations

REFERENCES

• Aghion, P., and P. Howitt. 1998. Endogenous Growth Theory. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Aghion, P., and P. Howitt. 2005. “Growth with Quality-Improving Innovations: An Integrated Framework.” In Handbook of Economic Growth, edited by P. Aghion and S. N. Durlauf, Chap. 2, 68–110. North-Holland: Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Agrawal, A., and R. Henderson. 2002. “Putting Patents in Context: Exploiting Knowledge Transfer From MIT.” Management Science 48 (1): 44–60. doi: 10.1287/mnsc.48.1.44.14279
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ai, C., and E. Norton. 2003. “Interaction Terms in Logit and Probit Models.” Economics Letters 80 (1): 123–129. doi: 10.1016/S0165-1765(03)00032-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alcacer, J., and M. Gittelman. 2006. “Patent Citations as a Measure of Knowledge Flows: The Influence of Examiner Citations.” Review of Economics and Statistics 88 (4): 774–779. doi: 10.1162/rest.88.4.774
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AUTM. 2008. U.S. Licensing Activity Survey: FY2007. Survey Summary. Deerfield, IL: Association of University Technology Managers.
   Google Scholar
• Azoulay, P., W. Ding, and T. Stuart. 2009. “The Impact of Academic Patenting on the Rate, Quality and the Direction of (Public) Research Output.” Journal of Industrial Economics 57 (4): 637–676. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6451.2009.00395.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azoulay, P., J. G. Zivin, and G. Manso. 2011. “Incentives and Creativity: Evidence from the Academic Life Sciences.” Rand Journal of Economics 42 (3): 527–554. doi: 10.1111/j.1756-2171.2011.00140.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bayh, B. 2004. Statement of Senator Birch Bayh to the National Institute of Health (May 25).
   Google Scholar
• BayhDole25. 2006. The Bayh-Dole Act at 25. BayhDole25, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Bessen, J. 2008. “The Value of US Patents by Owner and Patent Characteristics.” Research Policy 37 (5): 932–945. doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2008.02.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cameron, G., J. Proudman, and S. Redding. 2005. “Technological Convergence, R&D, Trade and Productivity Growth.” European Economic Review 49 (3): 775–809. doi: 10.1016/S0014-2921(03)00070-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coe, D., E. Helpman, and A. Hoffmaister. 1997. “North-South {R&D} Spillovers.” Economic Journal 107 (440): 134–149. doi: 10.1111/1468-0297.00146
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, W. M., R. R. Nelson, and J. P. Walsh. 2000. Protecting Their Intellectual Assets: Appropriability Conditions and Why US Manufacturing Firms Patent (or Not). Cambridge, MA: NBER.
   Google Scholar
• Conti, M., P. Regibeau, and K. Rockett. 2003. How Basic Is (Patented) University Research? The Case of GM Crops. Economics Discussion Papers No. 558. Economics Department, University of Essex.
   Google Scholar
• Czarnitzki, D., K. Hussinger, and C. Schneider. 2009. “Why Challenge the Ivory Tower? New Evidence on the Basicness of Academic Patents.” Kyklos 2 (4): 488–499. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6435.2009.00447.x
   Google Scholar
• Eaton, J., and S. Kortum. 1995. Trade in Ideas: Patenting and Productivity in the OECD. NBER Working Papers Series, No. 5049. Cambridge, MA: NBER.
   Google Scholar
• Eisenberg, R. 1996. “Public Research and Private Development: Patents and Technology Transfer in Government-Sponsored Research.” Virginia Law Review 82 (8): 1663–1727. doi: 10.2307/1073686
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elfenbein, D. W. 2007. “Publications, Patents, and the Market For University Inventions.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 63 (4): 688–715. doi: 10.1016/j.jebo.2006.05.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabrizio, K. R., and A. DiMinin. 2008. “Commercializing the Laboratory: Faculty Patenting and the Open Science Environment.” Research Policy 37 (5): 914–931. doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2008.01.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman, M., and M. R. Kelley. 2003. “Leveraging Research and Development: Assessing the Impact of the U.S. Advanced Technology Program.” Small Business Economics 20 (2): 153–165. doi: 10.1023/A:1022264031993
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foltz, J. D., K. Kim, and B. Barham. 2003. “A Dynamic Analysis of University Agricultural Biotechnology and Patent Production.” American Journal of Agricultural Economics 85 (1): 187–197. doi: 10.1111/1467-8276.00112
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, S. J. H., R. P. Merges, P. Samuelson, and T. Sichelman. 2009. “High Technology Entrepreneurs and Patent System: Results of the 2008 Berkeley Patent Survey.” Berkeley Technology Law Journal 24 (4): 1255–1355.
   Google Scholar
• Griffith, R., S. Redding, and J. van Reenen. 2004. “Mapping the Two Faces of R&D: Productivity Growth in a Panel of OECD Industries.” Review of Economics and Statistics 86 (4): 883–895. doi: 10.1162/0034653043125194
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griliches, Z. 1990. “Patent Statistics as Economic Indicators: A Survey.” Journal of Economic Literature 28 (4): 1661–1707.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grimaldi, R., M. Kenney, D. Siegel, and M. Wright. 2011. “30 Years After Bayh-Dole: Reassessing Academic Entrepreneurship.” Research Policy 40 (8): 1045–1057. doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2011.04.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grossman, G., and E. Helpman. 1991. Innovation and Growth in the Global Economy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Harbridge, H. 1968. Government Patent Policy Study. Final Report for the FCST Committee on Government Patent Policy, Washington, DC, 1–4.
   Google Scholar
• Hellmann, T. 2007. “The Role of Patents for Bridging the Science to Market Gap.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 63 (4): 624–647. doi: 10.1016/j.jebo.2006.05.013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson, R., A. B. Jaffe, and M. Trajtenber. 1998. “Universities as a Source of Commercial Technology: A Detailed Analysis of University Patenting, 1965–1988.” Review of Economics and Statistics 80 (1): 119–127. doi: 10.1162/003465398557221
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacob, B., and L. Lefgren. 2011. “The Impact of Research Grant Funding on Scientific Productivity.” Journal of Public Economics 95 (9–10): 1168–1177. doi: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2011.05.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaffe, A. B., M. S. Fogarty, and B. A. Banks. 1998. “Evidence from Patents and Patent Citations on the Impact of NASA and Other Federal Labs on Commercial Innovation.” Journal of Industrial Economics 46 (2): 183–205. doi: 10.1111/1467-6451.00068
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaffe, A. B., M. Trajtenber, and M. Fogarty. 2000. The Meaning of Patent Citations: Report on the NBER/Case-Western Reserve Survey of Patentees. NBER, Working Paper No. 7631.
   Google Scholar
• Jaffe, A. B., M. Trajtenber, and R. Henderson. 1993. “Geographic Localization of Knowledge Spillovers as Evidenced by Patent Citations.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 108 (3): 577–598. doi: 10.2307/2118401
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen, R., and M. Thursby. 2001. “Proofs and Prototypes for Sale: The Licensing of University Inventions.” American Economic Review 91 (1): 240–259. doi: 10.1257/aer.91.1.240
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, C. I. 2005. “The Shape of Production Functions and the Direction of Technical Change.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 120 (2): 517–549. http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/0033553053970142
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keller, W. 2002. “Trade and Transmission of Technology.” Journal of Economic Growth 7 (1): 5–24. doi: 10.1023/A:1013461025733
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krugman, P. 1991. Geography and Trade. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lach, S. 2002. “Do R&D Subsidies Stimulate or Displace Private R&D? Evidence From Israel.” The Journal of Industrial Economics L (4), 369–390.
   Google Scholar
• Lai, R., A. D. Amour, A. Yu, Y. Sun, V. Torvik, and L. Fleming. 2011. “Disambiguation and Co-Authorship Networks of the U.S. Patent Inventor Database (1975–2010).” http://dvn.iq.harvard.edu/dvn/dv/patent
   Google Scholar
• Lei, Z., and B. Wright. 2009. Why Weak Patents? Examiner Ignorance or Pro-“Customer" Tilt? Berkeley: University of California.
   Google Scholar
• Link, A. N., and J. T. Scott. 2010. “Government as Entrepreneur: Evaluating the Commercialization Success of SBIR Projects.” Research Policy 39 (5): 589–601. doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2010.02.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowe, R. 2002. Entrepreneurship and Information Asymmetry: Theory and Evidence from the University of California. Berkeley, CA: Haas School of Business, University of California.
   Google Scholar
• National Science Foundation. 2010. National Science Foundation, National Patterns of R&D Resources, 2008 Data Update. www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf10314/content.cfm?pub_id=4000&id=2.
   Google Scholar
• Press, E., and J. Washburn. 2000. The Kept University. Boston, MA: Atlantic Monthly Group.
   Google Scholar
• Pressman, L., R. Burgess, R. M. Cook-Deegan, S. J. McCormack, I. Nami-Wolk, M. Soucy, and L. Walters. 2006. “The Licensing of DNA Patents by US Academic Institutions: An Empirical Survey.” Nature Biotechnology 24 (1): 31–39. doi: 10.1038/nbt0106-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romer, P. M. 1990. “Endogenous Technical Change.” Journal of Political Economy 98 (5): 71–102. doi: 10.1086/261725
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosell, C., and A. Agrawal. 2009. “Have University Knowledge Flows Narrowed? Evidence from Patent Data.” Research Policy 38 (8): 1–13. doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2008.07.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruegg, R. T. 1998. “The Advanced Technology Program, Its Evaluation Plan, and Progress in Implementation.” Journal of Technology Transfer 23 (2): 5–9. doi: 10.1007/BF02509887
   Google Scholar
• Sampat, B. N., D. C. Mowery, and A. A. Ziedonis. 2003. “Changes in University Patent Quality After the Bayh-Dole Act: A Re-examination.” International Journal of Industrial Organization 21 (9): 1371–1390. doi: 10.1016/S0167-7187(03)00087-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santos Silva, J., and S. Tenreyro. 2006. “The Log of Gravity.” Review of Economics and Statistics 88 (4): 641–658. doi: 10.1162/rest.88.4.641
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarpetta, S., and T. Tressel. 2002. Productivity and Convergence in a Panel of OECD Industries: Do Regulations and Institutions Matter? OECD Economics Department Working Papers No. 342. Paris, France: OECD.
   Google Scholar
• Serrano, C. J. 2010. “The Dynamics of the Transfer and Renewal of Patents.” RAND Journal of Economics 41 (4): 686–708. doi: 10.1111/j.1756-2171.2010.00117.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trajtenberg, M. 2002. “Government Support for Commercial R&D: Lessons from the Israeli Experience.” In Innovation Policy and the Economy, edited by A. Jaffe, J. Lerner, and S. Stern, Vol. 2, 79–134. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Trajtenberg, M., R. Henderson, and A. Jaffe. 1992. Ivory Tower Versus Corporate Lab: An Empirical Study of Basic Research and Appropriability. NBER Working Paper No 4146. Cambridge, MA: NBER.
   Google Scholar
• Trajtenberg, M., R. Henderson, and A. Jaffe. 1997. “University Versus Corporate Patents: A Window on the Basicness of Invention.” Economics of Innovation and New Technology 5 (1): 19–50. doi: 10.1080/10438599700000006
   Google Scholar
• Wahburn, J. 2010. Big Oil Goes to College. Washington, DC: Center for American Progress.
   Google Scholar