Justice-restoring responses: a theoretical framework for understanding citizen complaints against the police

References

• Adams, J.S., 1965. Inequity in social exchange. Advances in experimental social psychology, 2, 267–299.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agnew, R., 1992. Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30, 47–88. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01093.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander, S., and Ruderman, M., 1987. The role of procedural and distributive justice in organizational behavior. Social justice research, 1, 177–198. doi: 10.1007/BF01048015
   Google Scholar
• Aronow, P.M., Baron, J., and Pinson, L. 2015. A note on dropping experimental subjects who fail a manipulation check. Available at SSRN 2683588.
   Google Scholar
• Bartels, E.C., and Silverman, E.B., 2005. An exploratory study of the New York City civilian complaint review board mediation program. Policing: An International Journal of police Strategies and Management, 28, 619–630. doi: 10.1108/13639510510628703
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berinsky, A.J., Margolis, M.F., and Sances, M.W., 2014. Separating the shirkers from the workers? Making sure respondents pay attention on self-administered surveys. American Journal of Political Science, 58, 739–753. doi: 10.1111/ajps.12081
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolger, P.C., and Walters, G.D., 2019. The relationship between police procedural justice, police legitimacy, and people’s willingness to cooperate with law enforcement: A meta-analysis. Journal of criminal justice, 60, 93–99. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2019.01.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandl, S.G., Stroshine, M.S., and Frank, J., 2001. Who are the complaint-prone officers? An examination of the relationship between police officers’ attributes, arrest activity, assignment, and citizens’ complaints about excessive force. Journal of criminal justice, 29, 521–529. doi: 10.1016/S0047-2352(01)00114-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brockner, J., et al., 1997. When trust matters: The moderating effect of outcome favorability. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42, 558–583. doi: 10.2307/2393738
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brockner, J., 2002. Making sense of procedural fairness: how high procedural fairness can reduce or heighten the influence of outcome favorability. The Academy of Management review, 27, 58–76. doi: 10.5465/amr.2002.5922363
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dum, C.P., Socia, K.M., and Rydberg, J., 2017. Public support for emergency shelter housing interventions concerning stigmatized populations: results from a factorial survey. Criminology and public policy, 16, 835–877. doi: 10.1111/1745-9133.12311
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engel, R.S., 2005. Citizens’ perceptions of distributive and procedural injustice during traffic stops with police. Journal of research in crime and Delinquency, 42, 445–481. doi: 10.1177/0022427804272725
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folger, R., and Konovsky, M.A., 1989. Effects of procedural and distributive justice on reactions to pay raise decisions. The Academy of Management Journal, 32, 115–130.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grace, K., and Bucke, T., 2009. Public annoyance and complaints about the police: findings from the 2006/07 British crime survey. London: Independent Police Complaints Commission.
   Google Scholar
• Hainmueller, J., Hangartner, D., and Yamamoto, T., 2015. Validating vignette and conjoint survey experiments against real-world behavior. Proceedings of the national Academy of Sciences, 112, 2395–2400. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1416587112
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Headley, A.M., D’Alessio, S.J., and Stolzenberg, L., 2017. The effect of a complainant’s race and ethnicity on dispositional outcome in police misconduct cases in Chicago. Race and justice, doi:10.1177/2153368717726829.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedberg, E.C., Katz, C.M., and Choate, D.E., 2017. Body-worn cameras and citizen interactions with police officers: estimating plausible effects given varying compliance levels. Justice Quarterly, 34, 627–651. doi: 10.1080/07418825.2016.1198825
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hegtvedt, K.A., 2006. Justice frameworks. In: P.J. Burke, ed. Contemporary social psychological theories. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 46–69.
   Google Scholar
• Hickman, M.J., and Poore, J.E., 2016. National data on citizen complaints about police use of force: data quality concerns and the potential (mis)use of statistical evidence to address police agency conduct. Criminal justice policy review, 27, 455–479. doi: 10.1177/0887403415594843
   Google Scholar
• Hinds, L., and Murphy, K., 2007. Public satisfaction with police: using procedural justice to improve police legitimacy. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 40, 27–42. doi: 10.1375/acri.40.1.27
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Homans, G.C., 1961. Social behavior: its elementary forms. New York, NY: Harcourt, Barce and World, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Huq, A.H., Jackson, J., and Trinkner, R., 2017. Legitimating practices: revisiting the predicates of police legitimacy. British journal of criminology, 57, 1101–1122.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jasso, G., 1980. A new theory of distributive justice. American Sociological review, 45, 3–32. doi: 10.2307/2095239
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leventhal, G.S., 1980. What should be done with equity theory? New approaches to the study of fairness in social relationships. In: K. Gergen, M. Greenberg, and R. Willis, ed. Social Exchange: advances in theory and research. New York: Plenum Press, 27–55.
   Google Scholar
• Lind, E.A., et al., 1980. Procedure and outcome effects on reactions to adjudicated resolution of conflicts of interest. Journal of Personality and social psychology, 39, 643–653. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.39.4.643
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lind, E.A., and Tyler, T.R., 1988. The social psychology of procedural justice. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
   Google Scholar
• MacQueen, S., and Bradford, B., 2015. Enhancing public trust and police legitimacy during road traffic encounters: results from a randomised controlled trial in Scotland. Journal of experimental Criminology, 11, 419–443. doi: 10.1007/s11292-015-9240-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maguire, E.R., Lowrey, B.V., and Johnson, D., 2017. Evaluating the relative impact of positive and negative encounters with police: a randomized experiment. Journal of experimental Criminology, 13, 367–391. doi: 10.1007/s11292-016-9276-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markovsky, B., 1985. Toward a multilevel distributive justice theory. American Sociological review, 50, 822–839. doi: 10.2307/2095506
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazerolle, L., et al., 2013. Shaping citizen perceptions of police legitimacy: a randomized field trial of procedural justice. Criminology, 51, 33–63. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00289.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean, K., 2019. Revisiting the role of distributive justice in Tyler’s legitimacy theory. Journal of experimental Criminology, doi:10.1007/s11292-019-09370-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan, R.E., and Truman, J.L., 2018. Criminal victimization, 2017. Washington: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
   Google Scholar
• Moule, R.K., et al., 2019. Legal socialization and subcultural norms: examining linkages between perceptions of procedural justice, legal cynicism, and the code of the street. Journal of criminal justice, 61, 26–39. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2019.03.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mullinix, K.J., et al., 2015. The generalizability of survey experiments. Journal of experimental Political Science, 2, 109–138. doi: 10.1017/XPS.2015.19
   Google Scholar
• Murphy, K., 2005. Regulating more effectively: the relationship between procedural justice, legitimacy, and tax non-compliance. Journal of Law and society, 32, 562–589. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6478.2005.00338.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagin, D.S., and Telep, C.W., 2017. Procedural justice and legal compliance. Annual review of Law and social Science, 13, 5–28. doi: 10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-110316-113310
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owens, E., et al., 2018. Can you build a better cop? Experimental evidence on supervision, training, and policing in the community. Criminology and public policy, 17, 41–87. doi: 10.1111/1745-9133.12337
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pickett, J.T., Nix, J., and Roche, S.P., 2018. Testing a social schematic model of police procedural justice. Social psychology Quarterly, 81, 97–125. doi: 10.1177/0190272518765134
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porter, T., and Prenzler, L., 2016. Complainants’ views of police complaint systems: The gap between aspiration and experience. In: T. Prenzler, and G. den Heyer, ed. Civilian oversight of police: Advancing accountability in Law Enforcement. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 73–94.
   Google Scholar
• Preacher, K.J., and Hayes, A.F., 2004. SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 36, 717–731. doi: 10.3758/BF03206553
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Prenzler, T., and Porter, L., 2016. Improving police behaviour and police-community relations through innovative responses to complaints. In: S. Lister, and M. Rowe, ed. Accountability of policing. New York: Routledge, 49–68.
   Google Scholar
• Randall, C.S., and Mueller, C.W., 1995. Extensions of justice theory: justice evaluations and employees’ reactions in a natural setting. Social psychology Quarterly, 58, 178–194. doi: 10.2307/2787041
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reisig, M.D., Bratton, J., and Gertz, M.G., 2007. The construct validity and refinement of process-based policing measures. Criminal justice and Behavior, 34, 1005–1028. doi: 10.1177/0093854807301275
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reisig, M.D., and Lloyd, C., 2009. Procedural justice, police legitimacy, and helping the police fight crime: results from a survey of Jamaican adolescents. Police Quarterly, 12, 42–62. doi: 10.1177/1098611108327311
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rydberg, J., Dum, C.P., and Socia, K.M., 2018. Nobody gives a #%and!: A factorial survey examining the effect of criminological evidence on opposition to sex offender residence restrictions. Journal of experimental Criminology, 14, 541–550. doi: 10.1007/s11292-018-9335-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaible, L.M., et al., 2012. Denver’s citizen/police complaint mediation program: officer and complainant satisfaction. Criminal justice policy review, 24, 626–650. doi: 10.1177/0887403412455327
   Google Scholar
• Shjarback, J.A., and White, M.D., 2016. Departmental professionalism and its impact on indicators of violence in police-citizen encounters. Police Quarterly, 19, 32–62. doi: 10.1177/1098611115604449
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skarlicki, D.P., and Folger, R., 1997. Retaliation in the workplace: the role of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice. Journal of Applied psychology, 82, 434–443. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.82.3.434
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strudwick, K., 2003. Is independence the only answer to complainants’ satisfaction of the police complaints process? A perspective from the United Kingdom. police practice and research, 4, 35–46. doi: 10.1080/1561426032000059178
   Google Scholar
• Sunshine, J., and Tyler, T.R., 2003. The role of procedural justice and legitimacy in shaping public support for policing. Law and society review, 37, 513–548. doi: 10.1111/1540-5893.3703002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabachnik, B.G., and Fidell, L.S., 2012. Using multivariate statistics. Boston: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Tankebe, J., 2013. Viewing things differently: the dimensions of public perceptions of police legitimacy. Criminology, 51, 103–135. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00291.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terrill, W., and Paoline, E.A., 2015. Citizen complaints as threats to police legitimacy: the role of officers’ occupational attitudes. Journal of Contemporary criminal justice, 31, 192–211. doi: 10.1177/1043986214568842
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thibaut, J., and Walker, L., 1975. Procedural justice: a psychological analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Tyler, T.R., 1990. Why people obey the law. New Haven: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tyler, T.R., and Jackson, J., 2014. Popular legitimacy and the exercise of legal authority: Motivating compliance, cooperation, and engagement. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 20, 78–95. doi: 10.1037/a0034514
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyler, T.R., and Wakslak, C.J., 2004. Profiling and police legitimacy: procedural justice, attributions of motive, and acceptance of police authority. Criminology, 42, 253–281. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2004.tb00520.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, S. 2014. What a good police department looks like: Professional, accountable, transparent, self-monitoring. Available from: https://samuelwalker.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/WHAT-A-GOOD-POLICE-DEPARTMENT-Final.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Walters, G.D., and Bolger, P.C., 2018. Procedural justice perceptions, legitimacy beliefs, and compliance with the law: a meta-analysis. Journal of experimental Criminology, doi:10.1007/s11292-018-9338-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberg, J.D., Freese, J., and McElhattan, D., 2014. Comparing data characteristics and results of an online factorial survey between a population-based and a crowdsource-recruited sample. Sociological Science, 1, 292–310. doi: 10.15195/v1.a19
   Google Scholar
• White, M.D., Gaub, J.E., and Todak, N., 2017. Exploring the potential for body-worn cameras to reduce violence in police-citizen encounters. Policing, 12, 66–76.
   Google Scholar
• White, M.D., Mulvey, P., and Dario, L.M., 2016. Arrestees’ perceptions of the police: exploring procedural justice, legitimacy, and willingness to cooperate with police across offender types. Criminal justice and Behavior, 43, 343–364. doi: 10.1177/0093854815602501
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfe, S.E., et al., 2016. Is the effect of procedural justice on police legitimacy invariant? Testing the generality of procedural justice and competing antecedents of legitimacy. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 32, 253–382. doi: 10.1007/s10940-015-9263-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfe, S.E., McLean, K., and Pratt, T.C., 2017. I learned it by watching you: legal socialization and the intergenerational transmission of legitimacy attitudes. British Journal of Criminology, 57, 1123–1143.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfe, S.E., and Piquero, A.R., 2011. Organizational justice and police misconduct. Criminal justice and Behavior, 38, 332–353. doi: 10.1177/0093854810397739
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Worden, R.E., Bonner, H.S., and McLean, S.J., 2018. Procedural justice and citizen review of complaints against the police: structure, outcomes, and complainants’ subjective experiences. Police Quarterly, 21, 77–108. doi: 10.1177/1098611117739812
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Worden, R.E., and McLean, S.J., 2017. Mirage of police reform: procedural justice and police legitimacy. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar