Values? Camera? Action! An ethnography of an AI camera system used by the Netherlands Police

References

• Ananny, M., 2016. Toward an ethics of algorithms: convening, observation, probability, and timeliness. Science, Technology, & Human Values, 41, 93–117. doi:10.1177/0162243915606523.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck Jørgensen, T., and Sørensen, D.-L., 2012. Codes of good governance: national or global public values? Public Integrity, 15, 71–96. doi:10.2753/PIN1099-9922150104.
   Google Scholar
• Bennett Moses, L., and Chan, J., 2018. Algorithmic prediction in policing: assumptions, evaluation, and accountability. Policing and Society, 28, 806–822. doi:10.1080/10439463.2016.1253695.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bovens, M., and Zouridis, S., 2002. From street-level to system-level bureaucracies: how information and communication technology is transforming administrative discretion and constitutional control. Public Administration Review, 62, 174–184. doi:10.1111/0033-3352.00168.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brayne, S., 2020. Predict and surveil: data, discretion, and the future of policing. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bucher, T.. 2018. 'The Multiplicity of Algorithms', If...Then: Algorithmic Power and Politics, Oxford Studies in Digital Politics (New York, 2018; online edn, Oxford Academic, 19 July 2018), doi:10.1093/oso/9780190493028.003.0002.
   Google Scholar
• Bullock, J.B., 2019. Artificial intelligence, discretion, and bureaucracy. The American Review of Public Administration, 49, 751–761. doi:10.1177/0275074019856123.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, J.B.L., 2001. The technological game: how information technology is transforming police practice. Criminal Justice, 1, 139–159. doi:10.1177/1466802501001002001.
   Google Scholar
• Christin, A., 2017. Algorithms in practice: Comparing web journalism and criminal justice. Big Data & Society, 4, 1–14. doi:10.1177/2053951717718855.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christin, A., 2020. The ethnographer and the algorithm: beyond the black box. Theory and Society, 49, 897–918. doi:10.1007/s11186-020-09411-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Boer, N., and Raaphorst, N., 2021. Automation and discretion: explaining the effect of automation on how street-level bureaucrats enforce. Public Management Review, 25 (1), 42–62. doi:10.1080/14719037.2021.1937684.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Graaf, G., Huberts, L., and Smulders, R., 2014. Coping with public value conflicts. Administration & Society, 48, 1101–1127. doi:10.1177/0095399714532273.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Graaf, G., and Meijer, A., 2019. Social media and value conflicts: an explorative study of the Dutch Police. Public Admin Rev, 79, 82–92. doi:10.1111/puar.12914.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman, B., Kahn Jr., P.H., and Borning, A., 2008. Value sensitive design and information systems. In: K.E. Himma and H.T. Tavani, eds. The handbook of information and computer ethics. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley, 69–101.
   Google Scholar
• Gillespie, T., 2014. The relevance of algorithms. In: T. Gillespie and P.J. Boczkowski, eds. Media technologies: Essays on Communication, Materiality, and Society. Cambridge: MA: The MIT Press, 167–194. doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262525374.003.0009.
   Google Scholar
• Glancy, D., 2004. Privacy on the Open Road. Ohio Northern Law Review, 30, 295.
   Google Scholar
• Guzik, K., et al., 2021. Making the material routine: a sociomaterial study of the relationship between police body worn cameras (BWCs) and organisational routines. Policing and Society, 31, 100–115. doi:10.1080/10439463.2019.1705823.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hendrix, J.A., et al., 2019. Strategic policing philosophy and the acquisition of technology: findings from a nationally representative survey of law enforcement. Policing and Society, 29, 727–743. doi:10.1080/10439463.2017.1322966.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Introna, L.D., 2016. Algorithms, governance, and governmentality: on governing academic writing. Science, Technology, & Human Values, 41, 17–49. doi:10.1177/0162243915587360.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jørgensen, T.B., and Bozeman, B., 2007. Public values: an inventory. Administration & Society, 39, 354–381. doi:10.1177/0095399707300703.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kitchin, R., 2017. Thinking critically about and researching algorithms. Information, Communication & Society, 20, 14–29. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2016.1154087.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koops, B.-J., 2021. The concept of function creep. Law, Innovation and Technology, 13, 29–56. doi:10.1080/17579961.2021.1898299.
   Google Scholar
• Kuziemski, M., and Misuraca, G., 2020. AI governance in the public sector: three tales from the frontiers of automated decision-making in democratic settings. Telecommunications Policy, 44, 101976. doi:10.1016/j.telpol.2020.101976.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leonardi, 2011. When flexible routines meet flexible technologies: affordance, constraint, and the imbrication of human and material agencies. MIS Quarterly, 35, 147. doi:10.2307/23043493.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipsky, M., 1980. Street-level bureaucracy: dilemmas of the individual in public services. 1st ed. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Lorenz, L., Meijer, A., and Schuppan, T., 2021. The algocracy as a new ideal type for government organizations: Predictive policing in Berlin as an empirical case. Information Polity, 26, 71–86. doi:10.3233/IP-200279.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lum, C., et al., 2011. License plate reader (LPR) police patrols in crime hot spots: an experimental evaluation in two adjacent jurisdictions. J Exp Criminol, 7, 321–345. doi:10.1007/s11292-011-9133-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lum, C., et al., 2019a. The rapid diffusion of license plate readers in US law enforcement agencies. PIJPSM, 42, 376–393. doi:10.1108/PIJPSM-04-2018-0054.
   Google Scholar
• Lum, C., et al., 2019b. Research on body-worn cameras: what we know, what we need to know. Criminology & Public Policy, 18, 93–118. doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12412.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lum, C., Koper, C.S., and Willis, J., 2017. Understanding the limits of technology’s impact on police effectiveness. Police Quarterly, 20, 135–163. doi:10.1177/1098611116667279.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manning, P. 2008. The technology of policing: crime mapping, information technology, and the rationality of crime control. The Technology of Policing: Crime Mapping, Information Technology, and the Rationality of Crime Control. 1–322.
   Google Scholar
• Meijer, A., and Grimmelikhuijsen, S.A., 2021. Responsible and accountable algorithmization: how to generate citizen trust in governmental usage of algorithms. In: M. Schuilenburg and R. Peeters, eds. The algorithmic society: technology, power, and knowledge. London: Routledge, 53–66.
   Google Scholar
• Meijer, A., Lorenz, L., and Wessels, M., 2021. Algorithmization of bureaucratic organizations: using a practice lens to study how context shapes predictive policing systems. Public admin rev, 81, 837–846. doi:10.1111/puar.13391.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meijer, A., and Ruijer, E., 2021. Code Goed Digitaal Openbaar Bestuur (CODIO): Borgen van waarden bij de digitalisering van openbaar bestuur. Utrecht: USBO Advies.
   Google Scholar
• Meijer, A., Schäfer, M.T., and Branderhorst, M., 2019. Principes voor goed lokaal bestuur in de digitale samenleving: Een aanzet tot een normatief kader. Bestuurswetenschappen, 73, 8–23. doi:10.5553/Bw/016571942019073004003.
   Google Scholar
• Meijer, A., and Thaens, M., 2021. The dark side of public innovation. Public performance & management review, 44, 136–154. doi:10.1080/15309576.2020.1782954.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mol, A., 2002. The body multiple: ontology in medical practice. Durham: Duke University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv1220nc1.
   Google Scholar
• Moura, E.O.d., and Bispo, M.d.S., 2020. Sociomateriality: theories, methodology, and practice. Can J Adm Sci, 37, 350–365. doi:10.1002/cjas.1548.
   Google Scholar
• Orlikowski, W.J., and Scott, S.V., 2008. 10 Sociomateriality: challenging the separation of technology, work and organization. ANNALS, 2, 433–474. doi:10.5465/19416520802211644.
   Google Scholar
• Orlikowski, W.J., and Scott, S.V., 2015. Exploring material-discursive practices: exploring material-discursive practices. Journal of Management Studies, 52, 697–705. doi:10.1111/joms.12114.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozbaran, Y., and Tasgin, S., 2019. Using cameras of automatic number plate recognition system for seat belt enforcement a case study of Sanliurfa (Turkey). PIJPSM, 42, 688–700. doi:10.1108/PIJPSM-07-2018-0093.
   Google Scholar
• Ratcliffe, J.H., Taylor, R.B., and Fisher, R., 2020. Conflicts and congruencies between predictive policing and the patrol officer’s craft. Policing and Society, 30, 639–655. doi:10.1080/10439463.2019.1577844.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riebe, T., et al., 2023. Values and value conflicts in the context of OSINT technologies for cybersecurity incident response: a value sensitive design perspective. Comput Supported Coop Work, 33, 205–251. doi:10.1007/s10606-022-09453-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuilenburg, M., and Soudijn, M., 2023. Big data policing: the use of big data and algorithms by the Netherlands Police. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 17, paad061. doi:10.1093/police/paad061.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz-Shea, P., and Yanow, D., 2012. Interpretive research design: concepts and processes, Routledge series on interpretive methods. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Seaver, N., 2017. Algorithms as culture: Some tactics for the ethnography of algorithmic systems. Big Data & Society, 4, 205395171773810. doi:10.1177/2053951717738104.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snijders, D., et al., 2019. Burgers en sensoren: Acht spelregels voor de inzet van sensoren voor veiligheid en leefbaarheid. Den Haag: Rathenau Instituut.
   Google Scholar
• Stahl, B.C., and Wright, D., 2018. Ethics and privacy in AI and Big Data: implementing responsible research and innovation. IEEE Secur. Privacy, 16, 26–33. doi:10.1109/MSP.2018.2701164.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stol, W., and Strikwerda, L., 2017. 5.5.2. Nieuwe ICT-hulpmiddelen. In: Strafrechtspleging in Een Digitale Samenleving. Den Haag: Boomjuridisch, 272–280.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor, B., Koper, C., and Woods, D., 2012. Combating vehicle theft in Arizona: a randomized experiment with license plate recognition technology. Criminal Justice Review, 37, 24–50. doi:10.1177/0734016811425858.
   Google Scholar
• Terpstra, J., Fyfe, N.R., and Salet, R., 2019. The abstract police: a conceptual exploration of unintended changes of police organisations. The Police Journal, 92, 339–359. doi:10.1177/0032258X18817999.
   Google Scholar
• Tummers, L., and Bekkers, V., 2014. Policy implementation, street-level bureaucracy, and the importance of discretion. Public Management Review, 16, 527–547. doi:10.1080/14719037.2013.841978.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Hulst, M., 2020. Ethnography and narrative. Policing and society, 30, 98–115. doi:10.1080/10439463.2019.1646259.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waardenburg, L., Sergeeva, A., and Huysman, M., 2018. Hotspots and blind spots: a case of predictive policing in practice. In: U. Schultze, M. Aanestad, M. Mähring, C. Østerlund, and K. Riemer, eds. Living with monsters? Social implications of algorithmic phenomena, hybrid agency, and the performativity of technology, IFIP advances in information and communication technology. Cham: Springer, 96–109. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04091-8_8.
   Google Scholar
• Wessels, M., 2023. Algorithmic policing accountability: eight sociotechnical challenges. Policing and Society, 34 (3), 124–138. doi:10.1080/10439463.2023.2241965.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wieringa, M., 2020. What to account for when accounting for algorithms: a systematic literature review on algorithmic accountability. In: Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency. Presented at the FAT* ‘20: Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, ACM. Barcelona, 1–18. doi:10.1145/3351095.3372833.
   Google Scholar
• Willis, J.J., Koper, C.S., and Lum, C., 2020. Technology use and constituting structures: accounting for the consequences of information technology on police organisational change. Policing and Society, 30, 483–501. doi:10.1080/10439463.2018.1557660.
   Google Scholar
• Zouridis, S., van Eck, M., and Bovens, M., 2020. Automated discretion. In: T. Evans and P. Hupe, eds. Discretion and the quest for controlled freedom. Cham: Springer, 313–329. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19566-3_20.
   Google Scholar