574
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Zero tolerance: effects, bias, and more effective strategies for Improving school safety

ORCID Icon, , , , , & show all

References

  • Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Addison–Wesley.
  • American Academy of Pediatrics. (2013). Out-of-school suspension and expulsion. Pediatrics, 131(3), 1206–1209. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-3932
  • American Psychological Association. (2008). Are zero tolerance policies effective in the schools?: An evidentiary review and recommendations. American Psychologist, 63(9), 852–862. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.63.9.852
  • Anyon, Y., Gregory, A., Stone, S., Farrar, J., Jenson, J. M., McQueen, J., Downing, B., Greer, E., & Simmons, J. (2016). Restorative interventions and school discipline sanctions in a large urban school district. American Educational Research Journal, 53(6), 1663–1697. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831216675719
  • Arcia, E. (2006). Achievement and enrollment status of suspended students: Outcomes in a large, multicultural school district. Education and Urban Society, 38(3), 359–369. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124506286947
  • Barclay, C. M. (2017). Benchmarks of equality? School-wide positive behavior interventions and supports and school discipline risk and disparities for Black and Hispanic students. [Doctoral dissertation, University of South Florida]. Digital Commons. https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/etd/6800/
  • Bastable, E., Falcon, S. F., McDaniel, S. C., McIntosh, K., & Santiago-Rosario, M. R. (2021). Understanding educators’ implementation of an equity-focused PBIS intervention: A qualitative study of critical incidents. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 23(4), 220–231. https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007211008847
  • Bear, G. G. (2015). Preventive and classroom-based strategies. In E. T. Emmer & E. J. Sabornie (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management (Vol. 2, pp. 15–39). Routledge.
  • Bradshaw, C. P., Koth, C. W., Thornton, L. A., & Leaf, P. J. (2009). Altering school climate through school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports: Findings from a group-randomized effectiveness trial. Prevention Science, 10(2), 100–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-008-0114-9
  • Bradshaw, C. P., Mitchell, M. M., O’’Brennan, L. M., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Multilevel exploration of factors contributing to the overrepresentation of black students in office disciplinary referrals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2), 508–520. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018450
  • Bradshaw, C. P., Pas, E. T., Bottiani, J. H., Debnam, K. J., Reinke, W. M., Herman, K. C., & Rosenberg, M. S. (2018). Promoting cultural responsivity and student engagement through double check coaching of classroom teachers: An efficacy study. School Psychology Review, 47(2), 118–134. https://doi.org/10.17105/SPR-2017-0119.V47-2
  • Brown, J. A., & McIntosh, K. (2012). Training, inclusion, and behaviour: Effect on student–teacher and student–SEA relationships for students with autism spectrum disorders. Exceptionality Education International, 22(2), 77–88. https://doi.org/10.5206/eei.v22i2.7699
  • Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. (2023). What is PBIS? www.pbis.org
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023). Data and statistics on children’s mental health.
  • Cook, C. R., Frye, M., Slemrod, T., Lyon, A. R., Renshaw, T. L., & Zhang, Y. (2015). An integrated approach to universal prevention: Independent and combined effects of PBIS and SEL on youths’ mental health. School Psychology Quarterly, 30(2), 166–183. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000102
  • Cornell, D., Maeng, J. L., Burnette, A. G., Jia, Y., Huang, F., Konold, T., Datta, P., Malone, M., & Meyer, P. (2018). Student threat assessment as a standard school safety practice: Results from a statewide implementation study. School Psychology Quarterly, 33(2), 213–222. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000220
  • Council of State Governments Justice Center. (2011). Breaking schools’ rules: A statewide study of how school discipline relates to students’ success and juvenile justice involvement. https://knowledgecenter.csg.org/kc/system/files/Breaking_School_Rules.pdf
  • Curran, F. C. (2016). Estimating the effect of state zero tolerance laws on exclusionary discipline, racial discipline gaps, and student behavior. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 38(4), 647–668. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373716652728
  • Curran, F. C. (2019). The law, policy, and portrayal of zero tolerance school discipline: Examining prevalence and characteristics across levels of governance and school districts. Educational Policy, 33(2), 319–349. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904817691840
  • Devine, P. G., Forscher, P. S., Austin, A. J., & Cox, W. T. (2012). Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(6), 1267–1278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.06.003
  • Dowdy, E., Ritchey, K., & Kamphaus, R. W. (2010). School-based screening: A population-based approach to inform and monitor children’s mental health needs. School Mental Health, 2(4), 166–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-010-9036-3
  • Downey, G., Lebolt, A., Rincón, C., & Freitas, A. L. (1998). Rejection sensitivity and children’s interpersonal difficulties. Child Development, 69(4), 1074–1091. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00611.x
  • Durlak, J. A., Domitrovich, C. E., Weissberg, R. P., & Gullotta, T. P. (2015). Handbook of social and emotional learning: Research and practice. The Guilford Press. https://www.guilford.com/books/Handbook-of-Social-and-Emotional-Learning/Durlak-Domitrovich-Weissberg-Gullotta/9781462527915
  • Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Development, 82(1), 405–432. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x
  • Evans, K. R., & Lester, J. N. (2012). Zero tolerance: Moving the conversation forward. Intervention in School and Clinic, 48(2), 108–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451212449735
  • Fenning, P., & Rose, J. (2007). Overrepresentation of African American students in exclusionary discipline: The role of school policy. Urban Education, 42(6), 536–559. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085907305039
  • Gettinger, M., & Walter, M. J. (2012). Classroom strategies to enhance academic engaged time. In Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 653–673). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_31
  • Gilliam, W. S., Maupin, A. N., Reyes, C. R., Accavitti, M., & Shic, F. (2016). Do early educators’ implicit biases regarding sex and race relate to behavior expectations and recommendations of preschool expulsions and suspensions. Yale University Child Study Center. https://medicine.yale.edu/childstudy/zigler/publications/Preschool%20Implicit%20Bias%20Policy%20Brief_final_9_26_276766_5379_v1.pdf
  • Gion, C., McIntosh, K., & Falcon, S. (2022). Effects of a multifaceted classroom intervention on racial disproportionality. School Psychology Review, 51(1), 67–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2020.1788906
  • Girvan, E. J. (2019). The law and social psychology of racial disparities in school discipline. In B. H. Bornstein & B. H. Miller (Eds.), Advances in psychology and law (pp. 235–276). Springer.
  • Gray, A. M., Sirinides, P. M., Fink, R., Flack, A., DuBois, T., Morrison, K., & Hill, K. (2017). Discipline in context: Suspension, climate, and PBIS in the School District of Philadelphia. Consortium for Policy Research in Education. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/253402.pdf
  • Green, A. L., Cohen, D. R., & Stormont, M. (2019). Addressing and preventing disproportionality in exclusionary discipline practices for students of color with disabilities. Intervention in School and Clinic, 54(4), 241–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451218782437
  • Green, A. L., Hatton, H., Stegenga, S. M., Eliason, B. M., & Nese, R. N. (2021). Examining commitment to prevention, equity, and meaningful engagement: A review of school district discipline policies. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 23(3), 137–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300720951940
  • Gregory, A., Huang, F. L., Anyon, Y., Greer, E., & Downing, B. (2018). An examination of restorative interventions and racial equity in out-of-school suspensions. School Psychology Review, 47(2), 167–182. https://doi.org/10.17105/SPR-2017-0073.V47-2
  • Gregory, A., Skiba, R. J., & Noguera, P. A. (2010). The achievement gap and the discipline gap: Two sides of the same coin? Educational Researcher, 39(1), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X09357621
  • Gregory, A., & Evans, K. R. (2020). The starts and stumbles of restorative justice in education: Where do we go from here? National Education Policy Center. http://nepc.colorado.edu/publication/restorative-justice
  • Halberstadt, A. G., Cooke, A. N., Garner, P. W., Hughes, S. A., Oertwig, D., & Neupert, S. D. (2022). Racialized emotion recognition accuracy and anger bias of children’s faces. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 22(3), 403–417. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000756
  • Hoffman, S. (2014). Zero benefit: Estimating the effect of zero tolerance discipline polices on racial disparities in school discipline. Educational Policy, 28(1), 69–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/08959048124539
  • Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., Smolkowski, K., Eber, L., Nakasato, J., Todd, A. W., & Esperanza, J. (2009). A randomized, wait-list controlled effectiveness trial assessing school-wide positive behavior support in elementary schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 11(3), 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300709332067
  • Hornsey, M. J. (2008). Social identity theory and self-categorization theory: A historical review. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(1), 204–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00066.x
  • Huang, F., & Anyon, Y. (2020). The relationship between school disciplinary resolutions with school climate and attitudes toward school. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 64(3), 212–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2020.1722940
  • Huang, F. L., & Cornell, D. (2018). The relationship of school climate with out-of-school suspensions. Children and Youth Services Review, 94, 378–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.08.013
  • Huang, F. L., & Cornell, D. G. (2017). Student attitudes and behaviors as explanations for the Black-White suspension gap. Children and Youth Services Review, 73, 298–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.01.002
  • Kaufman, P. (2000). Indicators of School Crime and Safety (1999). U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement & U.S. Departmnet of Justice, Office of Justice programs. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs99/1999057.pdf
  • Kelling, G. L., & Wilson, J. Q. (1982). Broken windows. The Atlantic Monthly, 249, 29–38.
  • Kelly, A., & Barnes-Holmes, D. (2013). Implicit attitudes towards children with autism versus normally developing children as predictors of professional burnout and psychopathology. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(1), 17–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2012.07.018
  • Kupchik, A. (2012). Homeroom security: School discipline in an age of fear. NYU Press. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qghw2
  • Lacoe, J., & Steinberg, M. P. (2019). Do suspensions affect student outcomes? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 41(1), 34–62. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373718794897
  • Lai, C. K., Hoffman, K. M., & Nosek, B. A. (2013). Reducing implicit prejudice. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(5), 315–330. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12023
  • Lane, K. L., Oakes, W. P., Buckman, M. M., Sherod, R., & Lane, K. S. (2020). Systematic screening for behavior in current K-12 settings. Center on PBIS, University of Oregon. www.pbis.org
  • Lane, K. L., Sherod, R. L., Oakes, W. P., & Lane, K. S. (2023). FD8 – Systematic screening: Practicalities & considerations. Center on PBIS, University of Oregon. www.pbis.org
  • Larson, J. (1998). Managing student aggression in high schools: Implications for practice. Psychology in the Schools, 35(3), 283–295. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6807(199807)35:3 < 283::AID-PITS8 > 3.0.CO;2-O
  • Larson, K. E., Pas, E. T., Bradshaw, C. P., Rosenberg, M. S., & Day-Vines, N. L. (2018). Examining how proactive management and culturally responsive teaching relate to student behavior: Implications for measurement and practice. School Psychology Review, 47(2), 153–166. https://doi.org/10.17105/SPR-2017-0070.V47-2
  • Losen, D. J. (2018). Disabling punishment: The need for remedies to the disparate loss of instruction experienced by Black students with disabilities. The Center for Civil Rights Remedies & The Charles Hamilton Houston Institute for Race and Justice. https://today.law.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/disabling-punishment-report-.pdf
  • Losen, D. J., & Martinez, T. E. (2013). Out of school and off track: The overuse of suspensions in American middle and high schools. The Center for Civil Rights Remedies. https://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights-remedies/school-to-prison-folder/federal-reports/out-of-school-and-off-track-the-overuse-of-suspensions-in-american-middle-and-high-schools/OutofSchool-OffTrack_UCLA_4-8.pdf
  • Maeng, J. L., Cornell, D., & Huang, F. (2020). Student threat assessment as an alternative to exclusionary discipline. Journal of School Violence, 19(3), 377–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2019.1707682
  • Massar, M. M., McIntosh, K., & Eliason, B. M. (2015). Do out-of-school suspensions prevent future exclusionary discipline? Center on PBIS, University of Oregon. www.pbis.org
  • McIntosh, K., Girvan, E. J., Horner, R. H., & Smolkowski, K. (2014). Education not incarceration: A conceptual model for reducing racial and ethnic disproportionality in school discipline. Journal of Applied Research on Children: Informing Policy for Children at Risk, 5(2), 1–22. https://digitalcommons.library.tmc.edu/childrenatrisk/vol5/iss2/4
  • McIntosh, K., Ellwood, K., McCall, L., & Girvan, E. J. (2018a). Using discipline data within a PBIS framework to enhance equity in school discipline. Intervention in School and Clinic, 53(3), 146–152. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451217702130
  • McIntosh, K., Gion, C., & Bastable, E. (2018b). Do schools implementing SWPBIS have decreased racial and ethnic disproportionality in school discipline. Center on PBIS, University of Oregon. www.pbis.org
  • McIntosh, K., Girvan, E. J., Fairbanks Falcon, S., McDaniel, S. C., Smolkowski, K., Bastable, E., Santiago-Rosario, M. R., Izzard, S., Austin, S. C., Nese, R. N. T., & Baldy, T. S. (2021a). Equity-focused PBIS approach reduces racial inequities in school discipline: A randomized controlled trial. School Psychology (Washington, D.C.), 36(6), 433–444. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000466
  • McIntosh, K., Girvan, E. J., McDaniel, S. C., Santiago-Rosario, M. R., St. Joseph, S., Fairbanks Falcon, S., Izzard, S., & Bastable, E. (2021b). Effects of an equity-focused PBIS approach to school improvement on exclusionary discipline and school climate. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 65(4), 354–361. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2021.1937027
  • Mendez, L. M. R., & Knoff, H. M. (2003). Who gets suspended from school and why: A demographic analysis of schools and disciplinary infractions in a large school district. Education and Treatment of Children, 26(1), 30–51. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42900535
  • Monahan, K. C., VanDerhei, S., Bechtold, J., & Cauffman, E. (2014). From the school yard to the squad car: School discipline, truancy, and arrest. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(7), 1110–1122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0103-1
  • Mongan, P., & Walker, R. (2012). “The road to hell is paved with good intentions”: A historical, theoretical, and legal analysis of zero-tolerance weapons policies in American schools. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 56(4), 232–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2011.654366
  • Moore, S., Long, A. C. J., Coyle, S., Cooper, J. M., Mayworm, A. M., Amirazizi, S., Edyburn, K. L., Pannozzo, P., Choe, D., Miller, F. G., Eklund, K., Bohnenkamp, J., Whitcomb, S., Raines, T. C., & Dowdy, E. (2023). A roadmap to equitable school mental health screening. Journal of School Psychology, 96, 57–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2022.11.001
  • Morris, E. W., & Perry, B. L. (2016). The punishment gap: School suspension and racial disparities in achievement. Social Problems, 63(1), 68–86. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spv026
  • Okonofua, J. A., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2015). Two strikes: Race and the disciplining of young students. Psychological Science, 26(5), 617–624. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615570365
  • Okonofua, J. A., Walton, G. M., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2016). A vicious cycle: A social–psychological account of extreme racial disparities in school discipline. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(3), 381–398. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616635592
  • Pace, A., Alper, R., Burchinal, M. R., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2019). Measuring success: Within and cross-domain predictors of academic and social trajectories in elementary school. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 46(1), 112–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.04.001
  • Robertson, K., Chamberlain, B., & Kasari, C. (2003). General education teachers’ relationships with included students with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(2), 123–130. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022979108096
  • Santiago-Rosario, M. R., & McIntosh, K. (2021). Increasing disciplinary equity by teaching neutralizing routines to teachers and students. In N. Yoder & A. Skoog-Hoffman (Eds.), Motivating the SEL field forward through equity (Vol. 21, pp. 127–142). Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320210000021010
  • Simonsen, B., Fairbanks, S., Briesch, A., Myers, D., & Sugai, G. (2008). Evidence-based practices in classroom management: Considerations for research to practice. Education & Treatment of Children, 31(3), 351–380. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.0.0007
  • Skiba, R. J., & Peterson, R. L. (2000). School discipline at a crossroads: From zero tolerance to early response. Exceptional Children, 66(3), 335–346. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290006600305
  • Skiba, R. J., Chung, C. G., Trachok, M., Baker, T. L., Sheya, A., & Hughes, R. L. (2014). Parsing disciplinary disproportionality: Contributions of infraction, student, and school characteristics to out-of-school suspension and expulsion. American Educational Research Journal, 51(4), 640–670. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831214541670
  • Skiba, R. J., Horner, R. H., Chung, C. G., Rausch, M. K., May, S. L., & Tobin, T. (2011). Race is not neutral: A national investigation of African American and Latino disproportionality in school discipline. School Psychology Review, 40(1), 85–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2011.12087730
  • Skiba, R. J., Michael, R. S., Nardo, A. C., & Peterson, R. L. (2002). The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment. The Urban Review, 34(4), 317–342. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021320817372
  • Skiba, R., & Peterson, R. (1999). The dark side of zero tolerance: Can punishment lead to safe schools? Phi Delta Kappan, 80(5), 372–382. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20439450
  • Skiba, R., & Rausch, M. (2015). Reconsidering exclusionary discipline: The efficacy and equity of out-of-school suspension and expulsion. In E. Emmer & E. J. Sobornie (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management (2nd ed., pp. 116–138). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203074114
  • Smolkowski, K., Girvan, E. J., McIntosh, K., Nese, R. N., & Horner, R. H. (2016). Vulnerable decision points for disproportionate office discipline referrals: Comparisons of discipline for African American and White elementary school students. Behavioral Disorders, 41(4), 178–195. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2753698
  • Steinberg, M. P., Allensworth, E., & Johnson, D. W. (2015). What conditions support safety in urban schools? The influence of school organizational practices on student and teacher reports of safety in Chicago. In D. J. Losen (Ed.), Closing the school discipline gap: Equitable remedies for excessive exclusion. Teachers College Press.
  • Sugai, G., & Horner, R. (2002). The evolution of discipline practices: School-wide positive behavior supports. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 24(1-2), 23–50. https://doi.org/10.1300/J019v24n01_03
  • Swain-Bradway, J., Gulbrandson, K., Galston, A., & McIntosh, K. (2019). Do Wisconsin schools implementing an integrated academic and behavior support framework improve equity in academic and school discipline outcomes? Center on PBIS, University of Oregon. www.pbis.org
  • Taylor, R. D., Oberle, E., Durlak, J. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2017). Promoting positive youth development through school-based social and emotional learning interventions: A meta-analysis of follow-up effects. Child Development, 88(4), 1156–1171. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12864
  • Thorsborne, M., & Blood, P. (2013). Implementing restorative practices in schools: A practical guide to transforming school communities. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2017.1268248
  • Tobin, T. J., & Vincent, C. G. (2011). Strategies for preventing disproportionate exclusions of African American students. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 55(4), 192–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2010.532520
  • Tobin, T., Sugai, G., & Colvin, G. (1996). Patterns in middle school discipline records. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 4(2), 82–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/106342669600400203
  • U.S Secret Service & U.S. Department of Education. (2004). The final report and findings of the safe school initiative. https://www2.ed.gov/admins/lead/safety/preventingattacksreport.pdf
  • U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2018). Discipline disparities for black students, boys, and students with disabilities. Report to congressional requesters, U.S. House (Report GAO-18-258). https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-18-258
  • Vincent, C. G., Inglish, J., Sprague, J. R., & McCabe, T. M. (2016). School-wide positive and restorative discipline (SWPRD): Integrating school-wide positive behavior interventions and supports and restorative discipline. In R. Skiba, K. Mediratta, & M. Rausch (Eds.), Inequality in school discipline. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-51257-4_7
  • Vincent, C. G., Sprague, J. R., Pavel, M., Tobin, T., & Gau, J. (2015). Effectiveness of schoolwide positive behavior interventions and supports in reducing racially inequitable disciplinary exclusion. In D. J. Losen (Ed.), Closing the school discipline gap: Equitable remedies for excessive exclusion (pp. 207–221). Teachers College Press.
  • Weinstein, C. S., Tomlinson-Clarke, S., & Curran, M. (2004). Toward a conception of culturally responsive classroom management. Journal of Teacher Education, 55(1), 25–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487103259812
  • Welsh, R. O., & Little, S. (2018). The school discipline dilemma: A comprehensive review of disparities and alternative approaches. Review of Educational Research, 88(5), 752–794. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654318791582
  • Wolf, K. C., & Kupchik, A. (2017). School suspensions and adverse experiences in adulthood. Justice Quarterly, 34(3), 407–430. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2016.1168475
  • Yeager, D. S., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Garcia, J., Apfel, N., Brzustoski, P., Master, A., Hessert, W. T., Williams, M. E., & Cohen, G. L. (2014). Breaking the cycle of mistrust: Wise interventions to provide critical feedback across the racial divide. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 143(2), 804–824. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033906

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.