Are some therapists better at facilitating and consolidating sudden gains than others?

References

• Abel, A., Hayes, A. M., Henley, W., & Kuyken, W. (2016). Sudden gains in cognitive–behavior therapy for treatment-resistant depression: Processes of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 84(8), 726–737. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Accurso, E. C., Fitzsimmons-Craft, E. E., Ciao, A., Cao, L., Crosby, R. D., Smith, T. L., & Peterson, C. B. (2015). Therapeutic alliance in a randomized clinical trial for bulimia nervosa. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83(3), 637–642. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aderka, I. M., Anholt, G. E., van Balkom, A. J., Smit, J. H., Hermesh, H., & van Oppen, P. (2011a). Sudden gains in the treatment of obsessivecompulsive disorder. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 81(1), 44–51. https://doi.org/10.1159/000329995
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aderka, I. M., Appelbaum-Namdar, E., Shafran, N., & Gilboa-Schechtman, E. (2011b). Sudden gains in prolonged exposure for children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(4), 441–446. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024112
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aderka, I. M., Nickerson, A., Bøe, H. J., & Hofmann, S. G. (2012). Sudden gains during psychological treatments of anxiety and depression: A meta-analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80(1), 93–101. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026455
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrusyna, T. P., Luborsky, L., Pham, T., & Tang, T. Z. (2006). The mechanisms of sudden gains in supportive–expressive therapy for depression. Psychotherapy Research, 16(5), 526–536. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503300600591379
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baldwin, S. A., Imel, Z. E., Braithwaite, S. R., & Atkins, D. C. (2014). Analyzing multiple outcomes in clinical research using multivariate multilevel models. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82(5), 920–930. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035628
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baldwin, S. A., Wampold, B. E., & Imel, Z. E. (2007). Untangling the alliance-outcome correlation: Exploring the relative importance of therapist and patient variability in the alliance. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(6), 842–852. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.75.6.842
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects Models Using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Beck depression inventory-II. San Antonio, 78(2), 490–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/t00742-000
   Google Scholar
• Bohn, C., Aderka, I. M., Schreiber, F., Stangier, U., & Hofmann, S. G. (2013). Sudden gains in cognitive therapy and interpersonal therapy for social anxiety disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81(1), 177–182. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031198
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bronisch, T., Hiller, W., Mombour, W., & Zaudig, M. (1996). International diagnostic checklists for personality disorders according to ICD-10 and DSM–IV-IDCL-P. Hogrefe and Huber Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Bürkner, P. (2017). Brms: An R package for Bayesian multilevel models using stan. Journal of Statisticals Software, 80(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v080.i01
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Busch, A. M., Kanter, J. W., Landes, S. J., & Kohlenberg, R. J. (2006). Sudden gains and outcome: A broader temporal analysis of cognitive therapy for depression. Behavior Therapy, 37(1), 61–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2005.04.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavallini, A. Q., & Spangler, D. L. (2013). Sudden gains in cognitive-behavioral therapy for eating disorders. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 6(3), 292–310. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2013.6.3.292
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clerkin, E. M., Teachman, B. A., & Smith-Janik, S. B. (2008). Sudden gains in group cognitive-behavioral therapy for panic disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46(11), 1244–1250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.08.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1977). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (rev ed.). Academic press.
   Google Scholar
• Coyne, J. C., Kessler, R. C., Tal, M., Turnbull, J., Wortman, C. B., & Greden, J. F. (1987). Living with a depressed person. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55(3), 347–352. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.55.3.347
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derogatis, L. R. (1977). SCL-90-R: Administration, scoring and procedures manual I. Clinical psychometric research.
   Google Scholar
• Ellsworth, J. R., Lambert, M. J., & Johnson, J. (2006). A comparison of the outcome questionnaire-45 and outcome questionnaire-30 in classification and prediction of treatment outcome. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy: An International Journal of Theory & Practice, 13(6), 380–391. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.503
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erekson, D. M., Clayson, R., Park, S. Y., & Tass, S. (2020). Therapist effects on early change in psychotherapy in a naturalistic setting. Psychotherapy Research, 30(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2018.1556824
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falkenström, F., Solomonov, N., & Rubel, J. A. (2020). Do therapist effects really impact estimates of within-patient mechanisms of change? A Monte Carlo simulation study. Psychotherapy Research, 30(7), 885–899. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2020.1769875
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. W. (1995). Structured clinical interview for axis I DSM–IV disorders-patient ed. (SCID-I/P). Biometrics research department, NY State psychiatric institute.
   Google Scholar
• Franke, G. (2000). BSI: Brief Symptom Inventory von L.R. Derogatis (kurzform der SCL-90-R) – deutsche version. Beltz Test GmbH.
   Google Scholar
• Gaynor, S. T., Weersing, V. R., Kolko, D. J., Birmaher, B., Heo, J., & Brent, D. A. (2003). The prevalence and impact of large sudden improvements during adolescent therapy for depression: A comparison across cognitive-behavioral, family, and supportive therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(2), 386–393. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.71.2.386
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenfield, M. F., Gunthert, K. C., & Haaga, D. A. (2011). Sudden gains versus gradual gains in a psychotherapy training clinic. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67(1), 17–30. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20748
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardy, G. E., Cahill, J., Stiles, W. B., Ispan, C., Macaskill, N., & Barkham, M. (2005). Sudden gains in cognitive therapy for depression: A replication and extension. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(1), 59–67. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.1.59
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. M., Laurenceau, J. P., Feldman, G., Strauss, J. L., & Cardaciotto, L. (2007). Change is not always linear: The study of nonlinear and discontinuous patterns of change in psychotherapy. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(6), 715–723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2007.01.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (2014). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Academic press.
   Google Scholar
• Hedman, E., Lekander, M., Ljótsson, B., Lindefors, N., Rück, C., Hofmann, S. G., … Schulz, S. M. (2014). Sudden gains in internet-based cognitive behaviour therapy for severe health anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 54, 22–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2013.12.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofmann, S. G., Schulz, S. M., Meuret, A. E., Moscovitch, D. A., & Suvak, M. (2006). Sudden gains during therapy of social phobia. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(4), 687–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.4.687
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard, K. I., Moras, K., Brill, P. L., Martinovich, Z., & Lutz, W. (1996). Evaluation of psychotherapy. Efficacy, effectiveness, and patient progress. American Psychologist, 51(10), 1059–1064. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.51.10.1059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hox, J. J., Moerbeek, M., & van de Schoot, R. (2010). Multilevel analysis: Techniques and applications (2nd ed.). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Jacobson, N. S., Roberts, L. J., Berns, S. B., & McGlinchey, J. B. (1999). Methods for defining and determining the clinical significance of treatment effects: Description, application, and alternatives. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(3), 300–307. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.67.3.300
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson, N. S., & Truax, P. (1991). Clinical significance: A statistical approach to defining meaningful change in psychotherapy research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59(1), 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.59.1.12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, M. A. R., Cyranowski, J. M., & Frank, E. (2007). Sudden gains in interpersonal psychotherapy for depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(11), 2563–2572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.07.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, M. A. R., Roberts, J. E., & Bottonari, K. A. (2007). Non-treatmentrelated sudden gains in depression: The role of self-evaluation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(4), 737–747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2006.06.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, M. A. R., Roberts, J. E., & Ciesla, J. A. (2005). Sudden gains in cognitive behavioral treatment for depression: When do they occur and do they matter? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(6), 703–714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.06.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemmens, L. H., DeRubeis, R. J., Arntz, A., Peeters, F. P., & Huibers, M. J. (2016). Sudden gains in cognitive therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy for adult depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 77, 170–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2015.12.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, M., Morley, S., van der Windt, D. A. W. M., Hay, E., Jellema, P., Dziedzic, K., & Main, C. J. (2010). Measuring practitioner/therapist effects in randomised trials of low back pain and neck pain interventions in primary care settings. European Journal of Pain, 14(10), 1033–1039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpain.2010.04.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lutz, W., Ehrlich, T., Rubel, J., Hallwachs, N., Röttger, M.-A., Jorasz, C., …  Tschitsaz-Stucki, A. (2013). The ups and downs of psychotherapy: Sudden gains and sudden losses identified with session reports. Psychotherapy Research, 23(1), 14–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2012.693837
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lutz, W., Rubel, J., Schiefele, A. K., Zimmermann, D., Böhnke, J. R., & Wittmann, W. W. (2015). Feedback and therapist effects in the context of treatment outcome and treatment length. Psychotherapy Research, 25(6), 647–660. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2015.1053553
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lutz, W., Rubel, J. A., Schwartz, B., Schilling, V., & Deisenhofer, A. K. (2019). Towards integrating personalized feedback research into clinical practice: Development of the Trier treatment navigator (TTN). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 120, 103438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2019.103438
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lutz, W., Tholen, S., Schürch, E., & Berking, M. (2006b). Die entwicklung, validierung und reliabilität von kurzformen gängiger psychometrischer instrumente zur evaluation destherapeutischen fortschritts in psychotherapie und psychiatrie. Diagnostica, 52(1), 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1026/0012-1924.52.1.11
   Google Scholar
• MacDonald, D. E., McFarlane, T. L., Dionne, M. M., David, L., & Olmsted, M. P. (2017). Rapid response to intensive treatment for bulimia nervosa and purging disorder: A randomized controlled trial of a CBT intervention to facilitate early behavior change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 85(9), 896–908. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000221
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norton, P. J., Klenck, S. C., & Barrera, T. L. (2010). Sudden gains during cognitive–behavioral group therapy for anxiety disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24(8), 887–892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.06.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Mahen, H. A., Wilkinson, E., Bagnall, K., Richards, D. A., & Swales, A. (2017). Shape of change in internet based behavioral activation treatment for depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 95, 107–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.05.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raudenbush, S., & Bryk, A. (2002). Hierarchical linear models (2nd ed.). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• R Core Team. (2019). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org/.
   Google Scholar
• Rubel, J. A., Zilcha-Mano, S., Feils-Klaus, V., & Lutz, W. (2018). Session-to-session effects of alliance ruptures in outpatient CBT: Within-and between-patient associations. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 86(4), 354–366. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000286
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schiefele, A. K., Lutz, W., Barkham, M., Rubel, J., Böhnke, J., Delgadillo, J., … Lambert, M. J. (2017). Reliability of therapist effects in practice-based psychotherapy research: A guide for the planning of future studies. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 44(5), 598–613. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-016-0736-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalom, J. G., & Aderka, I. M. (2020). A meta-analysis of sudden gains in psychotherapy: Outcome and moderators. Clinical Psychology Review, 76, 101827. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101827
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalom, J. G., Gilboa-Schechtman, E., Atzil-Slonim, D., Bar-Kalifa, E., Hasson-Ohayon, I., Van Oppen, P., & Aderka, I. M. (2018). Intraindividual variability in symptoms consistently predicts sudden gains: An examination of three independent datasets. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 86(11), 892–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000344
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon, W, Lambert, M J, Harris, M W, Busath, G, Vazquez, A ; W, Lambert, M J, Harris, M W, Busath, G, & Vazquez, A. (2012). Providing patient progress information and clinical support tools to therapists: Effects on patients at risk of treatment failure. Psychotherapy research, 22(6), 638–647.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stekhoven, D. J. (2013). missForest: Nonparametric Missing Value Imputation using Random Forest. R package version 1.4.
   Google Scholar
• Stekhoven, D. J., & Bühlmann, P. (2012). MissForest – non-parametric missing value imputation for mixed-type data. Bioinformatics (oxford, England), 28(1), 112–118. https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btr597
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stiles, W. B., Leach, C., Barkham, M., Lucock, M., Iveson, S., Shapiro, D. A., … Hardy, G. E. (2003). Early sudden gains in psychotherapy under routine clinic conditions: Practice-based evidence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(1), 14–21. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.71.1.14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang, T. Z., & DeRubeis, R. J. (1999). Sudden gains and critical sessions in cognitive-behavioral therapy for depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(6), 894–904. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.67.6.894
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang, T. Z., DeRubeis, R. J., Beberman, R., & Pham, T. (2005). Cognitive changes, critical sessions, and sudden gains in cognitive-behavioral therapy for depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(1), 168–172. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.1.168
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas, C, & Persons, J B. (2013). Sudden gains can occur in psychotherapy even when the pattern of change is gradual. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 20(2), 127–142.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vittengl, J. R., Clark, L. A., & Jarrett, R. B. (2005). Validity of sudden gains in acute phase treatment of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(1), 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.1.173
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vittengl, J, Clark, Anna, Thase, L, & Jarrett, M. (2015). Detecting sudden gains during treatment of major depressive disorder: Cautions from a Monte Carlo analysis. Current Psychiatry Reviews, 11(1), 19–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waljee, A. K., Mukherjee, A., Singal, A. G., Zhang, Y., Warren, J., Balis, U., … Higgins, P. D. (2013). Comparison of imputation methods for missing laboratory data in medicine. BMJ Open, 3(8), e002847. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-002847
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, L. P., & Maxwell, S. E. (2015). On disaggregating between-person and within-person effects with longitudinal data using multilevel models. Psychological Methods, 20(1), 63–83. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiedemann, M., Stott, R., Nickless, A., Beierl, E. T., Wild, J., Warnock-Parkes, E., & Ehlers, A. (2020). Cognitive processes associated with sudden gains in cognitive therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in routine care. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 88(5), 455–469. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000488
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wucherpfennig, F., Rubel, J. A., Hofmann, S. G., & Lutz, W. (2017a). Processes of change after a sudden gain and relation to treatment outcome—evidence for an upward spiral. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 85(12), 1199–1210. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000263
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wucherpfennig, F., Rubel, J. A., Hollon, S. D., & Lutz, W. (2017b). Sudden gains in routine care cognitive behavioral therapy for depression: A replication with extensions. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 89, 24–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2016.11.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xiao, H., Castonguay, L. G., Janis, R. A., Youn, S. J., Hayes, J. A., & Locke, B. D. (2017). Therapist effects on dropout from a college counseling center practice research network. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(4), 424–431. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmermann, D., Rubel, J., Page, A. C., & Lutz, W. (2016). Therapist effects on and predictors of non-consensual dropout in psychotherapy. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 24(2), 312–321. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar