The “Ghost” in the Lab: Believers’ and Non-Believers’ Implicit Responses to an Alleged Apparition

References

• Barrett, J. L. (2004). Why would anyone believe in God? AltaMira Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (1997). Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy. Science, 275(5304), 1293–1295.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bek, J., & Lock, S. (2011). Afterlife beliefs: Category specificity and sensitivity to biological priming. Religion, Brain & Behavior, 1(1), 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599X.2010.550724
   Google Scholar
• Bering, J. M. (2002). Intuitive conceptions of dead agents’ minds: The natural foundations of afterlife beliefs as phenomenological boundary. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 2(4), 263–308. https://doi.org/10.1163/15685370260441008
   Google Scholar
• Bering, J. M. (2006). The folk psychology of souls. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 29(5), 453–462. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X06009101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bering, J. M., McLeod, K., & Shackelford, T. K. (2005). Reasoning about dead agents reveals possible adaptive trends. Human Nature, 16(4), 360–381. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-005-1015-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berntson, G. G., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2004). Heart rate variability: Stress and psychiatric conditions. In M. Malik & A. J. Camm (Eds.), Dynamic electrocardiography (pp. 57–64). New York: Blackwell Futura.
   Google Scholar
• Billman, G. E. (2011). Heart rate variability - a historical perspective. Frontiers in Physiology, 2, 86. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2011.00086
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloom, P. (2007). Religion is natural. Developmental Science, 10(1), 147–151. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00577.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boucsein, W. (2012). Electrodermal activity. Springer Science & Business Media.
   Google Scholar
• Boyer, P. (2001). Religion explained: The evolutionary origins of religious thought. Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Cook, J. (2011, January 20). Pilgrims to site where Jesus was baptised risk landmines. The National. http://www.thenational.ae/news/worldwide/middleeast/pilgrims-to-site-where-jesus-was-baptised-risk-landmines
   Google Scholar
• Dahl, G. B., & Ransom, M. R. (2002). The 10% flat tax: Tithing and the definition of income. Economic Inquiry, 40(1), 120–137. https://doi.org/10.1093/ei/40.1.120
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawkins, R. (2006). The God delusion. Houghton Mifflin Co.
   Google Scholar
• Dawson, M. E., Schell, A. M., & Filion, D. L. (2007). The electrodermal system. In J. T. Cacioppo, L. G. Tassinary, & G. G. Berntson (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (pp. 159–181). New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Delaney, J. P. A., & Brodie, D. A. (2000). Effects of short-term psychological stress on the time and frequency domains of heart-rate variability. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 91(2), 515–524. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.2000.91.2.515
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaillard, A. W., & Kramer, A. F. (2000). Theoretical and methodological issues in psychophysiological research. In R. W. Backs and W. Boucsein (Eds.), Engineering Psychophysiology: Issues and Applications (pp. 31–58). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Gawronski, B., Morrison, M., Phills, C. E., & Galdi, S. (2017). Temporal stability of implicit and explicit measures: A longitudinal analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 43(3), 300–312. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167216684131
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgiadou, T., & Pnevmatikos, D. (2019). An exploration of afterlife beliefs in religiously-and secularly-oriented adults. Journal of Beliefs & Values, 40(2), 159–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2019.1583921
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerrig, R. J. (1993). Experiencing narrative worlds. Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gino, F., & Ariely, D. (2012). The dark side of creativity: Original thinkers can be more dishonest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(3), 445–459. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026406
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein, D. S., Bentho, O., Park, M. Y., & Sharabi, Y. (2011). Low-frequency power of heart rate variability is not a measure of cardiac sympathetic tone but may be a measure of modulation of cardiac autonomic outflows by baroreflexes. Experimental Physiology, 96(12), 1255–1261. https://doi.org/10.1113/expphysiol.2010.056259
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009). Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5), 1029. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray, K., Anderson, S., Doyle, C. M., Hester, N., Schmitt, P., Vonasch, A. J., Allison, S. T., & Jackson, J. C. (2018). To be immortal, do good or evil. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(6), 868–880. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217754068
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2002). the mind’s eye: Transportation-imagery model of narrative persuasion. In M. C. Green, J. J. Strange, & T. C. Brock (Eds.), Narrative impact: Social and cognitive foundations (pp. 315–341). Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2000). The role of transportation in the persuasiveness of public narratives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 701–721. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.701
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haidt, J., Bjorklund, F., & Murphy, S. (2000). Moral dumbfounding: When intuition finds no reason [Unpublished manuscript]. University of Virginia. http://www.faculty.virginia.edu/haidtlab/articles/manuscripts/haidt.bjorklund.working-paper.when%20intuition%20finds%20no%20reason.pub603.doc
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis:A regression-based approach. Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Heywood, B. T., & Bering, J. (2014). “Meant to be”: How religious beliefs and cultural religiosity affect the implicit bias to think teleologically. Religion, Brain & Behavior, 4(3), 183–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599X.2013.782888
   Google Scholar
• Hitchens, C. (2008). God is not great how religion poisons everything. Allen & Unwin.
   Google Scholar
• Huang, J., Cheng, L., & Zhu, J. (2013). Intuitive conceptions of dead persons’ mentality: A cross-cultural replication and more. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 23(1), 29–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2013.735493
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, J. C., Jong, J., Bluemke, M., Poulter, P., Morgenroth, L., & Halberstadt, J. (2018). Testing the causal relationship between religious belief and death anxiety. Religion, Brain & Behavior, 8(1), 57–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599X.2016.1238842
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Järnefelt, E., Canfield, C. F., & Kelemen, D. (2015). The divided mind of a disbeliever: Intuitive beliefs about nature as purposefully created among different groups of non-religious adults. Cognition, 140, 72–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2015.02.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Järnefelt, E., Zhu, L., Canfield, C. F., Chen, M., & Kelemen, D. (2019). Reasoning about nature’s agency and design in the cultural context of China. Religion, Brain & Behavior, 9(2), 156–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599X.2018.1449137
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jong, J., Halberstadt, J., & Bluemke, M. (2012). Foxhole atheism, revisited: The effects of mortality salience on explicit and implicit religious belief. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(5), 983–989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.03.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelemen, D., & Rosset, E. (2009). The human function compunction: Teleological explanation in adults. Cognition, 111(1), 138–143. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2009.01.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelemen, D., Rottman, J., & Seston, R. (2013). Professional physical scientists display tenacious teleological tendencies: Purpose-based reasoning as a cognitive default. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 142(4), 1074–1083. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030399
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King, M., Jones, L., Barnes, K., Low, J., Walker, C., Wilkinson, S., Mason, C., Sutherland, J., & Tookman, A. (2006). Measuring spiritual belief: Development and standardization of a Beliefs and Values Scale. Psychological Medicine, 36(3), 417–425. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329170500629X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosmin, B. A., Keysar, A., Cragun, R., & Navarro-Rivera, J. (2009). American nones: The profile of the no religion population: A report based on the American religious identification survey 2008. Trinity College.
   Google Scholar
• Lazarus, R. S., & Opton Jr, E. M. (1966). The study of psychological stress: A summary of theoretical formulations and experimental findings. Anxiety and behavior, 1, 225–262.
   Google Scholar
• Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological stress and the coping process. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Lindeman, M., Heywood, B., Riekki, T., & Makkonen, T. (2014). Atheists become emotionally aroused when daring God to do terrible things. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 24(2), 124–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2013.771991
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucini, D., Norbiato, G., Clerici, M., & Pagani, M. (2002). Hemodynamic and autonomic adjustments to real life stress conditions in humans. Hypertension, 39(1), 184–188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Memish, Z. A., Stephens, G. M., Steffen, R., & Ahmed, Q. A. (2012). Emergence of medicine for mass gatherings: Lessons from the Hajj. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 12(1), 56–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(11)70337-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendes, W. B. (2009). Assessing autonomic nervous system activity. In E. Harmon-Jones & J. S. Beer (Eds.), Methods in social neuroscience (pp. 118–147).
   Google Scholar
• Nash, M. (1963). Burmese Buddhism in everyday life. American Anthropologist, 65(2), 285–295. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1963.65.2.02a00050
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nietzsche, F. (1910). The joyful wisdom (“La gaya scienza”). Foulis.
   Google Scholar
• Pereira, V., Faísca, L., & de Sá-Saraiva, R. (2012). Immortality of the soul as an intuitive idea: Towards a psychological explanation of the origins of afterlife beliefs. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 12(1–2), 101–127. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853712X633956
   Google Scholar
• Pew Center on Religion and Public Life. (2014) . Religious landscape study. Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life.
   Google Scholar
• Piazza, J., Bering, J. M., & Ingram, G. (2011). “Princess Alice is watching you”: Children’s belief in an invisible person inhibits cheating. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 109(3), 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2011.02.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preston, J. L., Ritter, R. S., & Hepler, J. (2013). Neuroscience and the soul: Competing explanations for the human experience. Cognition, 127(1), 31–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2012.12.003 Available from
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R Core Team. (2020). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org/
   Google Scholar
• Romano, M., Roaro, A., Re, F., Osborne, L. A., Truzoli, R., & Reed, P. (2017). Problematic internet users’ skin conductance and anxiety increase after exposure to the internet. Addictive Behaviors, 75, 70–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.07.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schachner, A., Zhu, L., Li, J., & Kelemen, D. (2017). Is the bias for function-based explanations culturally universal? Children from China endorse teleological explanations of natural phenomena. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 157, 29–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2016.12.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scrivner, C. (2020, March, 27). The psychology of morbid curiosity: Development and initial validation of the morbid curiosity scale (PsyArXiv).
   Google Scholar
• Shaffer, F., & Ginsberg, J. P. (2017). An overview of heart rate variability metrics and norms. Frontiers in public health, 5, 258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherwood, H. (2010, July 26). Pollution fears at river Jordan pilgrimage spot. The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/26/israel-closes-jordan-christ-baptism
   Google Scholar
• Snel, E. (2013). Sitting still like a frog: Mindfulness exercises for kids (and their parents). Shambhala Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Valderas, M. T., Bolea, J., Laguna, P., Vallverdú, M., & Bailón, R. (2015, August). Human emotion recognition using heart rate variability analysis with spectral bands based on respiration. In Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), 2015 37th Annual International Conference of the IEEE (pp. 6134–6137). IEEE.
   Google Scholar
• Venables, W. N., & Ripley, B. D. (2002). Modern applied statistics with S (4th ed.). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar