Juvenile probation officers and discretionary decision-making: the effects of legal, physical, and social factors

References

• Annie E. Casey Foundation. (2018). Juvenile probation. http://www.aecf.org
   Google Scholar
• Annie E. Casey Foundation. (2020). The desktop guide to good juvenile probation. National Center for Juvenile Justice. www.aecf.org
   Google Scholar
• Arnold, W. R. (1971). Race and ethnicity relative to other factors in juvenile court dispositions. American Journal of Sociology, 77(2), 211–227. https://doi.org/10.1086/225097
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker, H. S. (1963). Outsiders. Studies in the sociology of deviance. Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bernard, T. J. (1992). The cycle of juvenile justice. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bishop, D. M., & Leiber, M. J. (2011). Racial and ethnic difference in delinquency and justice system responses. In B. C. Delf & D. M. Bishop (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of juvenile crime and justice (pp. 445–484). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bishop, D. M., Leiber, M. M., & Johnson, J. (2010). Contexts of decision making in the juvenile justice system: An organizational approach to understanding minority overrepresentation. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 8(3), 213–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204009361177
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolin, R. M., & Applegate, B. K. (2018). Supervising juveniles and adults: Organizational context, professional orientations, and probation and parole officer behavior. Journal of Crime and Justice, 41(4), 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2018.1440616
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bridges, G. S., & Steen, S. (1998). Racial disparities in official assessments of juvenile offenders: Attributional stereotypes as mediating mechanisms. American Sociological Review, 63(4), 554–570. https://doi.org/10.2307/2657267
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, M. A., & Schmidt, F. (2000). Comparison of mental health and legal factors in the disposition outcome of young offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27(6), 688–715. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854800027006002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter, R. M. (1966). It is respectfully recommended. Federal Probation, 30(2), 37–42.
   Google Scholar
• Carter, R., & Wilkins, L. (1967). Some factors in sentencing policy. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science, 58(4), 503–514. https://doi.org/10.2307/1141909
   Google Scholar
• Catlin, D. W., Posadas, C. E., Bond-Maupin, L. J., & Maupin, J. R. (2011). The impact of juvenile court judge ethical orientation on decision making. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 62(2), 53–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-6988.2011.01061.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cochran, J. C., & Mears, D. P. (2015). Race, ethnic, and gender divides in juvenile court sanctioning and rehabilitative intervention. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 52(2), 181–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427814560574
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engen, R. L., Steen, S., & Bridges, G. S. (2002). Racial disparities in the punishment of youth: A theoretical and empirical assessment of the literature. Social Problems, 49(2), 194–220. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2002.49.2.194
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evangelist, M., Ryan, J. P., Victor, B. G., Moore, A., & Perron, B. E. (2017). Disparities at adjudication in the juvenile justice system: An examination of race, gender, and age. Social Work Research, 41(4), 199–212. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svx017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fader, J. J., Kurlychek, M. C., & Morgan, K. A. (2014). The color of juvenile justice: Racial disparities in dispositional decisions. Social Science Research, 44, 126–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2013.11.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farnworth, M., Frazier, C., & Neuberger, A. (1988). Orientations to juvenile justice: Exploratory notes from a state-wide survey of juvenile justice decision makers. Journal of Criminal Justice, 16(6), 477–491. https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2352(88)90079-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feld, B. C. (1991). Justice by geography: Urban, suburban, and rural variation in juvenile justice administration. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1973-), 82(1), 156–210. https://doi.org/10.2307/1143795
   Google Scholar
• Ferdinand, T. N., & Luchterhand, E. G. (1970). Inner-city youth, the police, the juvenile court, and justice. Social Problems, 17(4), 510–527. https://doi.org/10.2307/799683
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fine, A., Donley, S., Cavanagh, C., Miltimore, S., Steinbert, L., Frick, P. J., & Cauffman, E. (2017). And justice for all: Determinants and effects of probation officers’ processing decision regarding first-time juvenile offenders. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 23(1), 105–117.
   Google Scholar
• Fisher, F. M. (1966). The identification problem in econometrics. McGraw Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Frazier, C., Bock, E., & Henretta, J. (1983). The role of probation officers in determining gender differences in sentencing severity. The Sociological Quarterly, 24(2), 305–318. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.1983.tb00704.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freiburger, T. L., & Hilinski, C. M. (2011). Probation officers; recommendations and final sentencing outcomes. Journal of Crime and Justice, 34(1), 45–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2011.554746
   Google Scholar
• Gann, S. M. (2019). Examining the relationship between race and juvenile court decision-making: A counterfactual approach. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 17(3), 269–287. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204018806976
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner, K., & Lanza-Kaduce, L. (2015). Putting the processing of juvenile offenders into context. In M. D. Krohn & J. Lane (Eds.), The handbook of juvenile delinquency and juvenile justice (pp. 85–100). Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Graham, S., & Lowery, B. S. (2004). Priming unconscious racial stereotypes about adolescent offenders. Law and Human Behavior, 28(5), 483–504. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:lahu.0000046430.65485.1f
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagan, J. (1975). The social and legal construction of criminal justice: A study of the pre-sentencing process. Social Problems, 22(5), 620–637. https://doi.org/10.2307/799695
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsia, H. S., Bridges, G. S., & McHale, R. (2004). Disproportionate minority confinement: 2002 update. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy, R. (1997). Race, crime, and the law. Pantheon Books.
   Google Scholar
• Kitsuse, J. I., & Cicourel, A. V. (1963). A note on the uses of official statistics. Social Problems, 11(2), 131–139. https://doi.org/10.2307/799220
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leiber, M. J., & Fox, K. C. (2005). Race and the impact of detention on juvenile justice decision making. Crime & Delinquency, 51(4), 470–497. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128705275976
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leiber, M. J., Peck, J. H., & Beaudry-Cyr, M. (2016). The likelihood of a “youth discount” in juvenile court sanctions: The influence of offender race, gender, and age. Race and Justice, 6(1), 5–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/2153368715595088
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leiber, M., Reitzel, J., & Mack, K. (2011). Probation officer recommendations for sentencing relative to judicial practice: The implications for African Americans. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 22(3), 301–329. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403410374230
   Google Scholar
• Leiber, M. J., Brubaker, S. J., & Fox, K. C. (2009). A closer look at the individual and joint effects of gender and race on juvenile justice decision making. Feminist Criminology, 4(4), 333–358. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085109338564
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leifker, D. (2009). The sentencing recommendations of the probation officer. What does it really mean? Findings from one small county in California (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Nebraska-Omaha.
   Google Scholar
• Minor, K. I., Hartmann, D. J., & Terry, S. (1997). Predictors of juvenile court actions and recidivism. Crime & Delinquency, 43(3), 328–344. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128797043003006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Namboodiri, N., Krishnan, C., Lewis, F., & Blalock, H. M. (1975). Applied multivariate analysis and experimental design. McGraw Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Norman, M., & Wadman, R. (2000). Presentence investigation reports: User group perceptions of quality and effectiveness. Federal Probation, 64, 7–12.
   Google Scholar
• Peck, J. H., & Jennings, W. G. (2016). A critical examination of “being black” in the juvenile justice system. Law and Human Behavior, 40(3), 219–232. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000180
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriquez, N. (2010). The cumulative effect of race and ethnicity in juvenile court outcome and why pre-adjudication detention matters. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 47, 391–413.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosecrance, J. (1987). Extra-legal factors and probation presentence reports. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 3(2), 38–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/104398628700300204
   Google Scholar
• Ruback, R. B., & Vardaman, P. J. (1997). Decision making in delinquency cases: The role of race and juvenile admission/denial of the crime. Law and Human Behavior, 21(1), 47–69. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1024866026608
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rush, C., & Robertson, J. (1987). Resentence reports: The utility of information in the sentencing decision. Law and Human Behavior, 11(2), 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01040447
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarpitti, F. R., & Stephenson, R. M. (1971). Juvenile court dispositions: Factors in the decision-making process. Crime & Delinquency, 17(2), 142–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/001112877101700203
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Secret, P. E., & Johnson, J. B. (1997). The effect of race on juvenile justice decision making in Nebraska: Detention, adjudication, and disposition, 1988-1993. Justice Quarterly, 14(3), 445–478. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829700093431
   Google Scholar
• Sieverdes, C. M., Shoemaker, D. J., & Cunningham, O. R. (1979). Disposition decisions by juvenile court probation officers and judges: A multivariate analysis. Criminal Justice Review, 4(2), 121–132. https://doi.org/10.1177/073401687900400212
   Google Scholar
• Smith, B. J., & Rosier, K. B. (2015). Offenders, ideologies, and legal and extra-legal factors: Juvenile court judge’s perspectives on disposition decisions. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 66(3), 33–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfcj.12031
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snyder, H. N., & Sickmund, M. (2006). Juvenile offenders and victims: 2006 national report. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
   Google Scholar
• StataCorp. (2021). Stata Statistical Software: Release 17. StataCorp LLC.
   Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D. (1980). Assessing the impact of women’s movement on sex-based differences in the handling of adult criminal defendants. Crime & Delinquency, 26(3), 344–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/001112878002600305
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D., Kramer, J., & Ulmer, J. (1995). Age differences in sentencing. Justice Quarterly, 12(3), 583–602. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829500096151
   Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D., Ulmer, J., & Kramer, J. (1998). The interaction of race, gender, and age in criminal sentencing: The punishment cost of being young, black, and male. Criminology, 36(4), 763–798. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01265.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stinchcomb, J., & Hippensteel, D. (2001). Presentence investigation reports: A relevant justice model tool or a medical model relic? Criminal Justice Policy Review, 12(2), 164–177. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403401012002004
   Google Scholar
• Terry, R. M. (1967). Discrimination in the handling of juvenile offenders by social-control agencies. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 4(2), 218–230. https://doi.org/10.1177/002242786700400204
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thornberry, I. P. (1973). Race, socioeconomic status and sentencing in the juvenile justice system. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1973-), 64(1), 90–98. https://doi.org/10.2307/1142660
   Google Scholar
• Ward, G., & Kupchik, A. (2010). What drives juvenile probation officers? Relating organizational contexts, status characteristics, and personal convictions to treatment and punishment orientations. Crime & Delinquency, 56(1), 35–69. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128707307960
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welch, K. (2007). Black criminal stereotypes and racial profiling. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 23(3), 276–288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986207306870
   Google Scholar
• Zane, S. N., & Pupo, J. A. (2021). Disproportionate minority contact in the juvenile justice system: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Justice Quarterly, 38(7), 1293–1318. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2021.1915364
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar