Emotionality in Task-Oriented Chatbots – The Effect of Emotion Expression on Chatbot Perception

References

• Araujo, T. (2018). Living up to the chatbot hype: The influence of anthropomorphic design cues and communicative agency framing on conversational agent and company perceptions. Computers in Human Behavior, 85, 183–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.051
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beattie, A., Edwards, A. P., & Edwards, C. (2020). A Bot and a Smile: Interpersonal impressions of chatbots and humans using emoji in computer-mediated communication. Communication Studies, 71(3), 409–427. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2020.1725082
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhattacherjee, A. (2001). Understanding information systems continuance: An expectation-confirmationmodel. MIS Quarterly, 25(3), 351–370. https://doi.org/10.2307/3250921
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blake, G. (1999). Managers at work: E-mail with feeling. Research Technology Management, 42(6), 12–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/08956308.1999.11671311
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braun, M., Mainz, A., Chadowitz, R., Pfleging, B., & Alt, F. (2019). At your service: Designing voice assistant personalities to improve automotive user interfaces. In M. Braun, A. Mainz, R. Chadowitz, B. Pfleging & F. Alt (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI ‘19), New York, NY, USA (pp. 1–11). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3290605.3300270
   Google Scholar
• Chattaraman, V., Kwon, W. ‑S., Gilbert, J. E., & Ross, K. (2019). Should AI-Based, conversational digital assistants employ social- or task-oriented interaction style? A task-competency and reciprocity perspective for older adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 90, 315–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.08.048
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaves, A. P., & Gerosa, M. A. (2021). How should my chatbot interact? A survey on human-chatbot interaction design. International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 37(8), 729–758. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2020.1841438
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chin, H., & Yi, M. Y. (2022). Voices that care differently: Understanding the effectiveness of a conversational agent with an alternative empathy orientation and emotional expressivity in mitigating verbal abuse. International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 38(12), 1153–1167. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2021.1987680
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crolic, C., Thomaz, F., Hadi, R., & Stephen, A. T. (2022). Blame the bot: Anthropomorphism and anger in customer–chatbot interactions. Journal of Marketing, 86(1), 132–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222429211045687
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das, G., Wiener, H. J., & Kareklas, I. (2019). To emoji or not to emoji? Examining the influence of emoji on consumer reactions to advertising. Journal of Business Research, 96, 147–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.11.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319. https://doi.org/10.2307/249008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, F. D., Bagozzi, R. P., & Warshaw, P. R.(1992). Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation to use computers in the workplace. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22(14), 1111–1132. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1992.tb00945.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Cicco, R., Da Silva, S. C. L. C. E., & Alparone, F. R. (2021). It’s on its way”: Chatbots applied for online food delivery services, social or task-oriented interaction style? Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 24(2), 140–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/15378020.2020.1826268
   Google Scholar
• Dinneen, L. C., & Blakesley, B. C. (1973). Algorithm as 62: A generator for the sampling distribution of the Mann- Whitney U statistic. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series C (Applied Statistics), 22(2), 269–273. https://doi.org/10.2307/2346934
   Google Scholar
• Elsholz, E., Chamberlain, J., & Kruschwitz, U. (2019). Exploring language style in Chatbots to increase perceived product value and user engagement. In L. Azzopardi, M. Halvey & I. Ruthven (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Human Information Interaction and Retrieval (CHIIR ‘19), New York, NY, USA (pp. 301–305). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3295750.3298956
   Google Scholar
• Epley, N., Waytz, A., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2007). On seeing human: A three-factor theory of anthropomorphism. Psychological Review, 114(4), 864–886. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.114.4.864
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esmark Jones, C. L., Hancock, T., Kazandjian, B., & Voorhees, C. M. (2022). Engaging the avatar: The effects of authenticity signals during chat-based service recoveries. Journal of Business Research, 144, 703–716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.01.012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Følstad, A., Nordheim, C. B., & Bjørkli, C. A. (2018). What makes users trust a chatbot for customer service? An exploratory interview study. In S. S. Bodrunova (Ed.), Internet science (pp. 194–208). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01437-7_16
   Google Scholar
• Følstad, A., & Skjuve, M. (2019). Chatbots for customer service: User experience and motivation. In L. Clark & B. R. Cowan (Chairs) (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Conversational User Interfaces. Dublin, Ireland. https://doi.org/10.1145/3342775.3342784
   Google Scholar
• Gambino, A., Fox, J., & Ratan, R. A. (2020). Building a stronger CASA: Extending the computers are social actors paradigm. Human-Machine Communication, 1, 71–85. https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/INFORMIT.097034846749023
   Google Scholar
• Go, E., & Sundar, S. S. (2019). Humanizing chatbots: The effects of visual, identity and conversational cues on humanness perceptions. Computers in Human Behavior, 97, 304–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.01.020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han, E., Yin, D., & Zhang, H. (2023). Bots with feelings: Should AI agents express positive emotion in customer service? Information Systems Research, 34(3), 1296–1311. https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.2022.1179
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hassenzahl, M. (2003). The Thing and I: Understanding the Relationship Between User and Product. In M. A. Blythe, K. Overbeeke, A. F. Monk & P. C. Wright (Eds.), 2003 – Funology: From Usability to Enjoyment. (Human-computer interaction series (Vol. 3). Kluwer Academic Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-2967-5
   Google Scholar
• Haugeland, I. K. F., Følstad, A., Taylor, C., & Bjørkli, C. A. (2022). Understanding the user experience of customer service chatbots: An experimental study of chatbot interaction design. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 161, 102788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2022.102788
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heyselaar, E. (2023). The CASA theory no longer applies to desktop computers. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 19693. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-46527-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamoen, N., McCartan, T., & Liebrecht, C. (2022). Conversational agent voting advice applications: A comparison between a structured, semi-structured, and non-structured chatbot design for communicating with voters about political issues. In T. Følstad, S. Araujo, E. L.–C. Papadopoulos, E. Law, Luger M. Goodwin, & P. B. Brandtzaeg (Eds.), Chatbot Research and Design (CONVERSATIONS 2021), Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Vol. 13171, pp. 160–175). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94890-0_10
   Google Scholar
• Kim, S., Lee, J., & Gweon, G. (2019). Comparing data from chatbot and web surveys: Effects of platform and conversational style on survey response quality. In S. Brewster, G. Fitzpatrick, A. Cox & V. Kostakos (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI ’19), Glasgow, Scotland UK (pp. 1–12). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3290605.3300316
   Google Scholar
• Lee, S., & Choi, J. (2017). Enhancing user experience with conversational agent for movie recommendation: Effects of self-disclosure and reciprocity. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 103, 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2017.02.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liao, V. Q., Mas-Ud Hussain, M., Chandar, P., Davis, M., Khazaeni, Y., Crasso, M. P. & Geyer, W. (2018). All work and no play? In R. Mandryk, M. Hancock, M. Perry & A. Cox (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI ‘18), Montreal QC, Canada (pp. 1–13). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3173574.3173577
   Google Scholar
• Li, X., Chan, K. W., & Kim, S. [Sara]. (2018). Service with emoticons: How customers interpret employee use of emoticons in online service encounters. The Journal of Consumer Research, 45(5), 973–987. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucy016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liebrecht, C., Sander, L., & van Hooijdonk, C. (2021). Too informal? How a chatbot’s communication style affects brand attitude and quality of interaction. In A. Følstad, T. Araujo, S. Papadopoulos, E.-L.-C. Law, E. Luger, M. Goodwin & P. B. Brandtzaeg (Eds.), Chatbot research and design (pp. 16–31). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68288-0_2
   Google Scholar
• Liu, B., & Sundar, S. S. (2018). Should machines express sympathy and empathy? Experiments with a health advice chatbot. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 21(10), 625–636. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2018.0110
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopatovska, I., & Arapakis, I. (2011). Theories, methods and current research on emotions in library and information science, information retrieval and human–computer interaction. Information Processing & Management, 47(4), 575–592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2010.09.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu, L., Cai, R., & Gursoy, D. (2019). Developing and validating a service robot integration willingness scale. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 80, 36–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2019.01.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nass, C. I., & Brave, S. (2005). Wired for speech: How voice activates and advances the human-computer relationship. MIT press.
   Google Scholar
• Nass, C. I., & Moon, Y. (2000). Machines and mindlessness: Social responses to computers. Journal of Social Issues, 56(1), 81–103. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00153
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nass, C. I., Steuer, J., & Tauber, E. R. (1994). Computers are social actors. In B. Adelson, S. Dumais & J. Olson (Eds.), Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI ‘94), NewYork, USA(pp. 72–78). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/191666.191703
   Google Scholar
• Neururer, M., Schlögl, S., Brinkschulte, L., & Groth, A. (2018). Perceptions on authenticity in chat bots. Multimodal Technologies and Interaction, 2(3), 60. https://doi.org/10.3390/mti2030060
   Google Scholar
• Nißen, M., Selimi, D., Janssen, A., Cardona, D. R., Breitner, M. H., Kowatsch, T., & Wangenheim, F. V. (2022). See you soon again, chatbot? A design taxonomy to characterize user-chatbot relationships with different time horizons. Computers in Human Behavior, 127, 107043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.107043
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nordheim, C. B., Følstad, A., & Bjørkli, C. A. (2019). An initial model of trust in Chatbots for customer service—findings from a questionnaire study. Interacting with Computers, 31(3), 317–335. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwz022
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oghuma, A. P., Libaque-Saenz, C. F., Wong, S. F., & Chang, Y. (2016). An expectation-confirmation model of continuance intention to use mobile instant messaging. Telematics and Informatics, 33(1), 34–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2015.05.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Picard, R. W. (1997). Affective computing. MIT press.
   Google Scholar
• Portela, M., & Granell-Canut, C. (2017). A new friend in our smartphone? observing interactions with chatbots in the search of emotional engagement. In J. M. González-Calleros (Ed.), Proceedings of the XVIII International Conference on Human Computer Interaction (Interacción ‘17), Cancun, Mexico (pp. 1–7). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3123818.3123826.
   Google Scholar
• Rapp, A., Curti, L., & Boldi, A. (2021). The human side of human-chatbot interaction: A systematic literature review of ten years of research on text-based chatbots. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 151, 102630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2021.102630
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richards, D., & Bransky, K. (2014). ForgetMeNot: What and how users expect intelligent virtual agents to recall and forget personal conversational content. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 72(5), 460–476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2014.01.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryu, J., & Baylor, A. L. (2005). The psychometric structure of pedagogical agent persona. Technology, Instruction, Cognition and Learning, 2, 291–314.
   Google Scholar
• Sheehan, B., Jin, H. S., & Gottlieb, U. (2020). Customer service chatbots: Anthropomorphism and adoption. Journal of Business Research, 115, 14–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.04.030
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheikha, F. A., & Inkpen, D. (2012). Learning to classify documents according to formal and informal style. Linguistic Issues in Language Technology, 8. https://doi.org/10.33011/lilt.v8i.1305
   Google Scholar
• Skovholt, K., Grønning, A., & Kankaanranta, A. (2014). The communicative functions of emoticons in workplace E-Mails. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 19(4), 780–797. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12063
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spreng, R. A., MacKenzie, S. B., & Olshavsky, R. W. (1996). A reexamination of the determinants of consumer satisfaction. Journal of Marketing, 60(3), 15–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224299606000302
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompsen, P. A., & Foulger, D. A. (1996). Effects of pictographs and quoting on flaming in electronic mail. Computers in Human Behavior, 12(2), 225–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/0747-5632(96)00004-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Dolen, W. M., Dabholkar, P. A., & Ruyter, K. (2007). Satisfaction with online commercial group chat: the influence of perceived technology attributes, chat group characteristics, and advisor communication style. Journal of Retailing, 83(3), 339–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2007.03.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Véliz, C. (2023). Chatbots shouldn’t use emojis. Nature, 615(7952), 375. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-00758-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wirtz, J., Patterson, P. G., Kunz, W. H., Gruber, T., Lu, V. N., Paluch, S., & Martins, A. (2018). Brave new world: Service robots in the frontline. Journal of Service Management, 29(5), 907–931. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOSM-04-2018-0119
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu, A., Liu, Z., Guo, Y., Sinha, V., & Akkiraju, R. (2017). A new chatbot for customer service on social media. In G. Mark & S. Fussell (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI ‘17), New York, NY, USA (pp. 3506–3510). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3025453.3025496
   Google Scholar
• Zhang, J., Chen, Q., Lu, J., Wang, X., Liu, L., & Feng, Y. (2024). Emotional expression by artificial intelligence chatbots to improve customer satisfaction: Underlying mechanism and boundary conditions. Tourism Management, 100, 104835. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2023.104835
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar