Maintenance Medication for Opiate Addiction: The Foundation of Recovery

REFERENCES

• Degenhardt , L , Bucello , C Calabria , B . 2011 . What data are available on the extent of illicit drug use and dependence globally? Results of four systematic reviews . Drug Alcohol Depend , 117 : 85 – 101 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization . 2009 . Global health risks: mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks , Geneva , , Switzerland : WHO Press .
   Google Scholar
• Salomon , N , Perlman , D C , Friedmann , P , Ziluck , V and Des , J . 2000 . Prevalence and risk factors for positive tuberculin skin tests among active drug users at a syringe exchange program . Int J Tuberc Lung Dis , 4 : 47 – 54 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson , P K , Mathers , B M Cowie , B . 2011 . Global epidemiology of hepatitis B and hepatitis C in people who inject drugs: results of systematic reviews . Lancet , 378 : 571 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mathers , B M , Degenhardt , L Phillips , B . 2008 . Global epidemiology of injecting drug use and HIV among people who inject drugs: a systematic review . Lancet , 372 : 1733 – 45 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paulozzi , L J , Budnitz , D S and Xi , Y . 2006 . Increasing deaths from opioid analgesics in the United States . Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf , 15 : 618 – 27 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Degenhardt , L , Bucello , C Mathers , B . 2011 . Mortality among regular or dependent users of heroin and other opioids: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies . Addiction , 106 : 32 – 51 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2011 . Vital signs: overdoses of prescription opioid pain relievers–United States, 1998–2008 . MMRW , 60 : 1487 – 92 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• UNODC . World drug report 2011 . 2011. United Nations Publication Sales No. E.11.XI.10
   Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration . Results from the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: summary of national findings , Rockville , MD : Office of Applied Studies . DHHS Publication No. SMA 11–4658. 2011 NSDUH Series H-41
   Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration . 2011 . “ Treatment episode data set ” . http://www.dasis.samhsa.gov/webt/quicklink/us09.htm (accessed December 21, 2011).
   Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration . 2011 . “ National survey on drug use and health 2010 ” . http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/cgi-bin/SDA/SAMHDA/hsda?samhda+32722-0001 (accessed December 21, 2011)
   Google Scholar
• Kreek , M J , Bart , G , Lilly , C , Laforge , K S and Nielsen , D A . 2005 . Pharmacogenetics and human molecular genetics of opiate and cocaine addictions and their treatments . Pharmacol Rev , 57 : 1 – 26 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merikangas , K R , Stolar , M Stevens , D E . 1998 . Familial transmission of substance use disorders . Arch Gen Psychiatry , 55 : 973 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsuang , M T , Lyons , M J Meyer , J M . 1998 . Co-occurrence of abuse of different drugs in men: the role of drug-specific and shared vulnerabilities . Arch Gen Psychiatry , 55 : 967 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monitoring the Future . 2011 . 2011 data from in-school surveys of 8th-,10th, and 12th-grade students . http://monitoringthefuture.org/data/11data.html#2011data-drugs (accessed December 21, 2011)
   Google Scholar
• Kalinichev , M , Easterling , K W and Holtzman , S G . 2003 . Long-lasting changes in morphine-induced locomotor sensitization and tolerance in long-evans mother rats as a result of periodic postpartum separation from the litter: a novel model of increased vulnerability to drug abuse? . Neuropsychopharmacology , 28 : 317 – 28 .
   Google Scholar
• Vazquez , V , Giros , B and Dauge , V . 2006 . Maternal deprivation specifically enhances vulnerability to opiate dependence . Behav Pharmacol , 17 : 715 – 24 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brook , J S , Brook , D W , Zhang , C and Cohen , P . 2009 . Pathways from adolescent parent-child conflict to substance use disorders in the fourth decade of life . Am J Addict , 18 : 235 – 42 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mills , K L , Teesson , M , Ross , J and Peters , L . 2006 . Trauma, PTSD, and substance use disorders: findings from the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being . Am J Psychiatry , 163 : 652 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkow , N D , Ding , Y S Fowler , J S . 1995 . Is methylphenidate like cocaine? Studies on their pharmacokinetics and distribution in the human brain . Arch Gen Psychiatry , 52 : 456 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkow , N D , Wang , G J Fischman , M W . 2000 . Effects of route of administration on cocaine induced dopamine transporter blockade in the human brain . Life Sci , 67 : 1507 – 15 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsch , L A , Bickel , W K Badger , G J . 2001 . Effects of infusion rate of intravenously administered morphine on physiological, psychomotor, and self-reported measures in humans . J Pharmacol Exp Ther , 299 : 1056 – 65 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson , S W and North , R A . 1992 . Opioids excite dopamine neurons by hyperpolarization of local interneurons . J Neurosci , 12 : 483 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkow , N D , Wang , G J , Fowler , J S , Tomasi , D and Telang , F . 2011 . Addiction: beyond dopamine reward circuitry . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 108 : 15037 – 42 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pickens , C L , Airavaara , M , Theberge , F , Fanous , S , Hope , B T and Shaham , Y . 2011 . Neurobiology of the incubation of drug craving . Trends in Neurosciences , 34 : 411 – 20 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koob , G F and Volkow , N D . 2010 . Neurocircuitry of addiction . Neuropsychopharmacology , 35 : 217 – 38 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang , G J , Volkow , N D Fowler , J S . 1997 . Dopamine D2 receptor availability in opiate-dependent subjects before and after naloxone-precipitated withdrawal . Neuropsychopharmacology , 16 : 174 – 82 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zijlstra , F , Booij , J , van den Brink , W and Franken , I HA . 2008 . Striatal dopamine D2 receptor binding and dopamine release during cue-elicited craving in recently abstinent opiate-dependent males . European Neuropsychopharmacology , 18 : 262 – 70 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy , J A , Hartman , N , Sbriglio , R , Khuri , E and Kreek , M J . 1990 . Metyrapone-induced withdrawal symptoms . Br J Addict , 85 : 1133 – 40 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schluger , J H , Borg , L , Ho , A and Kreek , M J . 2001 . Altered HPA axis responsivity to metyrapone testing in methadone maintained former heroin addicts with ongoing cocaine addiction . Neuropsychopharmacology , 24 : 568 – 75 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bart , G , Borg , L , Schluger , J H , Green , M , Ho , A and Kreek , M J . 2003 . Suppressed prolactin response to dynorphin A1–13 in methadone-maintained versus control subjects . J Pharmacol Exp Ther , 306 : 581 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schluger , J H , Bart , G , Green , M , Ho , A and Kreek , M J . 2003 . Corticotropin-releasing factor testing reveals a dose-dependent difference in methadone maintained vs control subjects . Neuropsychopharmacology , 28 : 985 – 94 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hackman , D A , Farah , M J and Meaney , M J . 2010 . Socioeconomic status and the brain: mechanistic insights from human and animal research . Nat Rev Neurosci , 11 : 651 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan , D , Grant , K A Gage , H D . 2002 . Social dominance in monkeys: dopamine D2 receptors and cocaine self-administration . Nat Neurosci , 5 : 169 – 74 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pescor , M J . 1943 . Follow-up study of treated narcotics addicts . Publ Health Rep , 170 ( Suppl ) : 1 – 18 .
   Google Scholar
• Vaillant , G E . 1973 . A 20-year follow-up of New York narcotic addicts . Arch Gen Psychiatry , 29 : 237 – 41 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayet , S , Farrell , M , Ferri , M , Amato , L and Davoli , M . 2005 . Psychosocial treatment for opiate abuse and dependence . Cochrane Database Syst Rev , CD004330
   Google Scholar
• Mattick , R P , Breen , C , Kimber , J and Davoli , M . 2003 . Methadone maintenance therapy versus no opioid replacement therapy for opioid dependence . Cochrane Database Syst Rev , CD002209
   Google Scholar
• Hser , Y I , Hoffman , V , Grella , C E and Anglin , M D . 2001 . A 33-year follow-up of narcotics addicts . Arch Gen Psychiatry , 58 : 503 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kakko , J , Svanborg , K D , Kreek , M J and Heilig , M . 2003 . 1-year retention and social function after buprenorphine-assisted relapse prevention treatment for heroin dependence in Sweden: a randomised, placebo-controlled trial . Lancet , 361 : 662 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woody , G E , Kane , V , Lewis , K and Thompson , R . 2007 . Premature deaths after discharge from methadone maintenance: a replication . J Addict Med , 1 : 180 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cornish , R , Macleod , J , Strang , J , Vickerman , P and Hickman , M . 2010 . Risk of death during and after opiate substitution treatment in primary care: prospective observational study in UK General Practice Research Database . BMJ , 341 : c5475
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cushman , P and Dole , V P . 1973 . Detoxification of rehabilitated methadone-maintained patients . JAMA , 226 : 747 – 52 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amato , L , Davoli , M , Minozzi , S , Ali , R and Ferri , M . 2005 . Methadone at tapered doses for the management of opioid withdrawal . Cochrane Database Syst Rev , CD003409
   Google Scholar
• Gowing , L , Ali , R and White , J M . Opioid antagonists under heavy sedation or anaesthesia for opioid withdrawal . Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010; CD002022
   Google Scholar
• Collins , E D , Kleber , H D , Whittington , R A and Heitler , N E . 2005 . Anesthesia-assisted vs buprenorphine- or clonidine-assisted heroin detoxification and naltrexone induction . JAMA , 294 : 903 – 13 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sees , K L , Delucchi , K L Masson , C . 2000 . Methadone maintenance vs 180-day psychosocially enriched detoxification for treatment of opioid dependence: a randomized controlled trial . JAMA , 283 : 1303 – 10 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ling , W , Hillhouse , M Domier , C . 2009 . Buprenorphine tapering schedule and illicit opioid use . Addiction , 104 : 256 – 65 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleiderer , E C , Rice , J B , Conquest , V and Williams , J H . 1945 . Pharmaceutical activities at the I.G. Farbenindustrie plant, Hochst am Main. 981 , Washington , DC : Office of the Publication Board Department of Commerce .
   Google Scholar
• McCance-Katz , E F , Sullivan , L E and Nallani , S . 2010 . Drug interactions of clinical importance among the opioids, methadone and buprenorphine, and other frequently prescribed medications: a review . Am J Addict , 19 : 4 – 16 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreek , M J . 1973 . Medical safety and side effects of methadone in tolerant individuals . JAMA , 223 : 665 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Center for Substance Abuse Treatment . 2007 . “ Methadone mortality—a reassessment ” . http://www.dpt.samhas.gov/pdf/methadone_report_10%2018%2007_brief%20attch.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Strang , J , Hall , W , Hickman , M and Bird , S M . 2010 . Impact of supervision of methadone consumption on deaths related to methadone overdose 1993–2008: analyses using OD4 index in England and Scotland . BMJ , 341 : c4851
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , J A , Campbell , A Killip , T . 2011 . QT interval screening in methadone maintenance treatment: report of a SAMHSA expert panel . J Addict Dis , 30 : 283 – 306 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martell , B A , Arnsten , J H , Krantz , M J and Gourevitch , M N . 2005 . Impact of methadone treatment on cardiac repolarization and conduction in opioid users . Am J Cardiol , 95 : 915 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bart , G . 2011 . CSAT's QT interval screening in methadone report: outrageous fortune or sea of troubles? . J Addict Dis , 30 : 313 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isbell , H , Wikler , A , Eddy , N B , Wilson , J L and Moran , C F . 1947 . tolerance and addiction liability of 6-dimethylamino-4–4-diphenylheptanone-3 methadon . JAMA , 135 : 888 – 94 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isbell , H and Vogel , V H . 1949 . The addiction liability of methadone amidone, dolophine, 10820 and its use in the treatment of the morphine abstinence syndrome . Am J Psychiatry , 105 : 909 – 14 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dole , V P , Nyswander , M E and Kreek , M J . 1966 . Narcotic blockade . Arch Intern Med , 118 : 304 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dole , V P and Nyswander , M . 1965 . A medical treatment for diacetylmorphine heroin addiction. A clinical trial with methadone hydrochloride . JAMA , 193 : 646 – 50 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institutes of Health . 1998 . Effective medical treatment of opiate addiction. National Consensus Development Panel on Effective Medical Treatment of Opiate Addiction . JAMA , 280 : 1936 – 43 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ball , J C and Ross , A . 1991 . The effectiveness of methadone maintenance , New York : Springer-Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Johnson , R E , Chutuape , M A , Strain , E C , Walsh , S L , Stitzer , M L and Bigelow , G E . 2000 . A comparison of levomethadyl acetate, buprenorphine, and methadone for opioid dependence . N Engl J Med , 343 : 1290 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strain , E C , Bigelow , G E , Liebson , I A and Stitzer , M L . 1999 . Moderate- vs high-dose methadone in the treatment of opioid dependence: a randomized trial . JAMA , 281 : 1000 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ling , W , Wesson , D R , Charuvastra , C and Klett , C J . 1996 . A controlled trial comparing buprenorphine and methadone maintenance in opioid dependence . Arch Gen Psychiatry , 53 : 401 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpson , D D , Joe , G W , Broome , K M , Hiller , M L , Knight , K and Rowan-Szal , G A . 1997 . Program diversity and treatment retention rates in the drug abuse treatment outcome study DATOS . Psychol Addict Behav , 11 : 279 – 93 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLellan , A T , Lewis , D C , O’Brien , C P and Kleber , H D . 2000 . Drug dependence, a chronic medical illness: implications for treatment, insurance, and outcomes evaluation . JAMA , 284 : 1689 – 95 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsch , L A , Stephens , M A , Mudric , T , Strain , E C , Bigelow , G E and Johnson , R E . 2005 . Predictors of outcome in LAAM, buprenorphine, and methadone treatment for opioid dependence . Exp Clin Psychopharmacol , 13 : 293 – 302 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly , S M , O’Grady , K E , Mitchell , S G , Brown , B S and Schwartz , R P . 2011 . Predictors of methadone treatment retention from a multi-site study: a survival analysis . Drug Alcohol Depend , 117 : 170 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belding , M A , McLellan , A T , Zanis , D A and Incmikoski , R . 1998 . Characterizing “nonresponsive” methadone patients . J Subst Abuse Treat , 15 : 485 – 92 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villafranca , S W , McKellar , J D , Trafton , J A and Humphreys , K . 2006 . Predictors of retention in methadone programs: a signal detection analysis . Drug Alcohol Depend , 83 : 218 – 24 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraft , M K , Rothbard , A B , Hadley , T R , McLellan , A T and Asch , D A . 1997 . Are supplementary services provided during methadone maintenance really cost-effective? . Am J Psychiatry , 154 : 1214 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , A M and Inturrisi , C E . 1999 . d-Methadone blocks morphine tolerance and N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced hyperalgesia . J Pharmacol Exp Ther , 289 : 1048 – 53 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kling , M A , Carson , R E Borg , L . 2000 . Opioid receptor imaging with positron emission tomography andd [18F]cyclofoxy in long-term, methadone-treated former heroin addicts . J Pharmacol Exp Ther , 295 : 1070 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreek , M J , Wardlaw , S L Hartman , N . 1983 . Circadian rhythms and levels of beta-endorphin, ACTH, and cortisol during chronic methadone maintenance treatment in humans . Life Sci , 33 : 409 – 11 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Facchinetti , F , Grasso , A , Petraglia , F , Parrini , D , Volpe , A and Genazzani , A R . 1984 . Impaired circadian rhythmicity of beta-lipotrophin, beta-endorphin and ACTH in heroin addicts . Acta Endocrinol Copenh , 105 : 149 – 55 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kreek , M J , Borg , L , Zhou , Y and Schluger , J . 2002 . “ Relationships between endocrine functions and substance abuse syndromes: heroin and related short-acting opiates in addiction contrasted with methadone and other long-acting opioid agonists used in pharmacotherapy of addiction ” . In Hormones, brain and behavior , Edited by: Pfaff , D , Arnold , A Etgen , A . 781 – 830 . San Diego , CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bentley , K W and Hardy , D G . 1967 . Novel analgesics and molecular rearrangements in the morphine-thebaine group. 3. Alcohols of the 6,14-endo-ethenotetrahydrooripavine series and derived analogs of N-allylnormorphine and -norcodeine . J Am Chem Soc , 89 : 3281 – 92 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ling , W , Casadonte , P Bigelow , G . 2010 . Buprenorphine implants for treatment of opioid dependence: a randomized controlled trial . JAMA , 304 : 1576 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuh , K J and Johanson , C E . 1999 . Pharmacokinetic comparison of the buprenorphine sublingual liquid and tablet . Drug Alcohol Depend , 56 : 55 – 60 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Picard , N , Cresteil , T , Djebli , N and Marquet , P . 2005 . In vitro metabolism study of buprenorphine: evidence for new metabolic pathways . Drug Metab Dispos , 33 : 689 – 95 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fudala , P J , Bridge , T P Herbert , S . 2003 . Office-based treatment of opiate addiction with a sublingual-tablet formulation of buprenorphine and naloxone . N Engl J Med , 349 : 949 – 58 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walsh , S L , Preston , K L , Stitzer , M L , Cone , E J and Bigelow , G E . 1994 . Clinical pharmacology of buprenorphine: ceiling effects at high doses . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 55 : 569 – 80 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comer , S D , Sullivan , M A and Walker , E A . 2005 . Comparison of intravenous buprenorphine and methadone self-administration by recently detoxified heroin-dependent individuals . J Pharmacol Exp Ther , 315 : 1320 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kintz , P . 2001 . Deaths involving buprenorphine: a compendium of French cases . Forensic Sci Int , 121 : 65 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comer , S D , Sullivan , M A Vosburg , S K . 2010 . Abuse liability of intravenous buprenorphine/naloxone and buprenorphine alone in buprenorphine-maintained intravenous heroin abusers . Addiction , 105 : 709 – 18 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , W R , Eades , C G , Thompson , J A , Huppler , R E and Gilbert , P E . 1976 . The effects of morphine- and nalorphine-like drugs in the nondependent and morphine-dependent chronic spinal dog . J Pharmacol Exp Ther , 197 : 517 – 32 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jasinski , D R , Pevnick , J S and Griffith , J D . 1978 . Human pharmacology and abuse potential of the analgesic buprenorphine: a potential agent for treating narcotic addiction . Arch Gen Psychiatry , 35 : 501 – 16 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Center for Substance Abuse Treatment . 2004 . Clinical guidelines for the use of buprenorphine in the treatment of opioid addiction , Vol. 40 , Rockville , MD : Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Treatment Improvement Protocol TIP Series . DHHS Publication Number SMA 04–3939
   Google Scholar
• Lee , J D , Grossman , E , DiRocco , D and Gourevitch , M N . 2009 . Home buprenorphine/naloxone induction in primary care . J Gen Intern Med , 24 : 226 – 32 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mello , N K and Mendelson , J H . 1980 . Buprenorphine suppresses heroin use by heroin addicts . Science , 207 : 657 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reisinger , M . 1985 . Buprenorphine as new treatment for heroin dependence . Drug Alcohol Depend , 16 : 257 – 62 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ling , W , Charuvastra , C Collins , J F . 1998 . Buprenorphine maintenance treatment of opiate dependence: a multicenter, randomized clinical trial . Addiction , 93 : 475 – 86 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattick , R P , Kimber , J , Breen , C and Davoli , M . “ Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence ” . Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008 CD002207
   Google Scholar
• Fiellin , D A , Pantalon , M V Chawarski , M C . 2006 . Counseling plus buprenorphine-naloxone maintenance therapy for opioid dependence . N Engl J Med , 355 : 365 – 74 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss , R D , Potter , J S Fiellin , D A . 2011 . Adjunctive counseling during brief and extended buprenorphine-naloxone treatment for prescription opioid dependence: a 2-phase randomized controlled trial . Arch Gen Psychiatry , 68 : 1238 – 46 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattick , R P , Ali , R , White , J M , O’Brien , S , Wolk , S and Danz , C . 2003 . Buprenorphine versus methadone maintenance therapy: a randomized double-blind trial with 405 opioid-dependent patients . Addiction , 98 : 441 – 52 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore , B A , Fiellin , D A Barry , D T . 2007 . Primary care office-based buprenorphine treatment: comparison of heroin and prescription opioid dependent patients . J Gen Intern Med , 22 : 527 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald , M K , Johanson , C E Moody , D E . 2003 . Effects of buprenorphine maintenance dose on mu-opioid receptor availability, plasma concentrations, and antagonist blockade in heroin-dependent volunteers . Neuropsychopharmacology , 28 : 2000 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rolandi , E , Marabini , A , Franceschini , R , Messina , V , Bongera , P and Barreca , T . 1983 . Changes in pituitary secretion induced by an agonist-antagonist opioid drug, buprenorphine . Acta Endocrinol Copenh , 104 : 257 – 60 .
   Google Scholar
• Kosten , T R , Morgan , C and Kreek , M J . 1992 . Beta endorphin levels during heroin, methadone, buprenorphine, and naloxone challenges: preliminary findings . Biol Psychiatry , 32 : 523 – 8 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kakko , J , von , W J , Svanborg , K D , Lidstrom , J , Barr , C S and Heilig , M . 2008 . Mood and neuroendocrine response to a chemical stressor, metyrapone, in buprenorphine-maintained heroin dependence . Biol Psychiatry , 63 : 172 – 7 .
   Google Scholar
• Fatseas , M , Denis , C , Massida , Z , Verger , M , Franques-Rénéric , P and Auriacombe , M . 2011 . Cue-induced reactivity, cortisol response and substance use outcome in treated heroin dependent individuals . Biol Psychiatry , 70 : 720 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blumberg , H , Pachter , I and Matossian , Z . 1967 . inventors. 14-hydroxydihydronormorphi- none derivatives. US Patent 3,332,950 .
   Google Scholar
• Verebey , K , Volavka , J , Mule , S J and Resnick , R B . 1976 . Naltrexone: disposition, metabolism, and effects after acute and chronic dosing . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 20 : 315 – 28 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wall , M E , Brine , D R and Perez-Reyes , M . 1981 . Metabolism and disposition of naltrexone in man after oral and intravenous administration . Drug Metab Dispos , 9 : 369 – 75 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfohl , D N , Allen , J I Atkinson , R L . 1986 . Naltrexone hydrochloride Trexan: a review of serum transaminase elevations at high dosage . NIDA Res Monogr , 67 : 66 – 72 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martin , W R . 1975 . Realistic goals for antagonist therapy . Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse , 2 : 353 – 6 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volavka , J , Resnick , R B , Kestenbaum , R S and Freedman , A M . 1976 . Short-term effects of naltrexone in 155 heroin ex-addicts . Biol Psychiatry , 11 : 679 – 85 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunbar , J L , Turncliff , R Z , Dong , Q , Silverman , B L , Ehrich , E W and Lasseter , K C . 2006 . Single- and multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of long-acting injectable naltrexone . Alcohol Clin Exp Res , 30 : 480 – 90 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institutes of Health . 1976 . Narcotic antagonists: naltrexone progress report , Edited by: Julius , D and Renault , P . Virginia : National Institute on Drug Abuse research Monograph Series 9 . DHEW
   Google Scholar
• O’Brien , C P , Greenstein , R A , Mintz , J and Woody , G E . 1975 . Clinical experience with naltrexone . Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse , 2 : 365 – 77 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollister , L E , Schwin , R L and Kasper , P . 1977 . Naltrexone treatment of opiate-dependent persons . Drug Alcohol Depend , 2 : 203 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Judson , B A , Carney , T M and Goldstein , A . 1981 . Naltrexone treatment of heroin addiction: efficacy and safety in a double-blind dosage comparison . Drug Alcohol Depend , 7 : 325 – 46 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minozzi , S , Amato , L , Vecchi , S , Davoli , M , Kirchmayer , U and Verster , A . Oral naltrexone maintenance treatment for opioid dependence . Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; CD001333
   Google Scholar
• Comer , S D , Sullivan , M A Yu , E . 2006 . Injectable, sustained-release naltrexone for the treatment of opioid dependence: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial . Arch Gen Psychiatry , 63 : 210 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krupitsky , E , Nunes , E V , Ling , W , Illeperuma , A , Gastfriend , D R and Silverman , B L . 2011 . Injectable extended-release naltrexone for opioid dependence: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre randomised trial . Lancet , 377 : 1506 – 13 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulse , G K , Morris , N , Arnold-Reed , D and Tait , R J . 2009 . Improving clinical outcomes in treating heroin dependence: randomized, controlled trial of oral or implant naltrexone . Arch Gen Psychiatry , 66 : 1108 – 15 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunøe , N , Lobmaier , P Vederhus , J K . 2009 . Naltrexone implants after in-patient treatment for opioid dependence: randomised controlled trial . Br J Psychiatry , 194 : 541 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ngo , H TT , Tait , R J and Hulse , G K . 2008 . Comparing drug-related hospital morbidity following heroin dependence treatment with methadone maintenance or naltrexone implantation . Arch Gen Psychiatry , 65 : 457 – 65 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weerts , E M , Kim , Y K Wand , G S . 2008 . Differences in delta- and mu-opioid receptor blockade measured by positron emission tomography in naltrexone-treated recently abstinent alcohol-dependent subjects . Neuropsychopharmacology , 33 : 653 – 65 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volpicelli , J R , Clay , K L , Watson , N T and O’Brien , C P . 1995 . Naltrexone in the treatment of alcoholism: predicting response to naltrexone . J Clin Psychiatry , 56 : 39 – 44 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krupitsky , E M , Zvartau , E E Masalov , D V . 2006 . Naltrexone with or without fluoxetine for preventing relapse to heroin addiction in St. Petersburg, Russia . J Subst Abuse Treat , 31 : 319 – 28 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dijkstra , B AG , De Jong , C AJ , Bluschke , S M , Krabbe , P FM and van der Staak , C PF . 2007 . Does naltrexone affect craving in abstinent opioid-dependent patients? . Addiction Biology , 12 : 176 – 82 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaham , Y , Funk , D , Erb , S , Brown , T J , Walker , C D and Stewart , J . 1997 . Corticotropin-releasing factor, but not corticosterone, is involved in stress-induced relapse to heroin-seeking in rats . J Neurosci. , 17 : 2605 – 14 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosten , T R , Kreek , M J , Ragunath , J and Kleber , H D . 1986 . Cortisol levels during chronic naltrexone maintenance treatment in ex- opiate addicts . Biol Psychiatry , 21 : 217 – 20 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Malley , S S , Krishnan-Sarin , S , Farren , C , Sinha , R and Kreek , M J . 2002 . Naltrexone decreases craving and alcohol self-administration in alcohol-dependent subjects and activates the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis . Psychopharmacology Berl , 160 : 19 – 29 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmadi , J , Ahmadi , K and Ohaeri , J . 2003 . Controlled, randomized trial in maintenance treatment of intravenous buprenorphine dependence with naltrexone, methadone or buprenorphine: a novel study . Eur J Clin Invest , 33 : 824 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schottenfeld , R S , Chawarski , M C and Mazlan , M . 2008 . Maintenance treatment with buprenorphine and naltrexone for heroin dependence in Malaysia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial . Lancet , 371 : 2192 – 200 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bart , G . 2011 . Promise of extended-release naltrexone is a red herring . Lancet , 378 : 663 – 4 .
   Google Scholar
• Kreek , M J , Bencsath , F A and Field , F H . 1980 . Effects of liver disease on urinary excretion of methadone and metabolites in maintenance patients: quantitation by direct probe chemical ionization mass spectrometry . Biomed Mass Spectrom , 7 : 385 – 95 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pond , S M , Kreek , M J , Tong , T G , Raghunath , J and Benowitz , N L . 1985 . Altered methadone pharmacokinetics in methadone-maintained pregnant women . J Pharmacol Exp Ther , 233 : 1 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , H E , Kaltenbach , K Heil , S H . 2010 . Neonatal abstinence syndrome after methadone or buprenorphine exposure . N Engl J Med , 363 : 2320 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piccolo , P , Borg , L , Lin , A , Melia , D , Ho , A and Kreek , M J . 2002 . Hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus-1 co-infection in former heroin addicts in methadone maintenance treatment . J Addict Dis , 21 : 55 – 66 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minozzi , S , Amato , L and Davoli , M . Maintenance treatments for opiate dependent adolescent . Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; CD007210
   Google Scholar
• Rosenblum , A , Joseph , H , Fong , C , Kipnis , S , Cleland , C and Portenoy , R K . 2003 . Prevalence and characteristics of chronic pain among chemically dependent patients in methadone maintenance and residential treatment facilities . JAMA , 289 : 2370 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gastfriend , D R . 2011 . Intramuscular extended-release naltrexone: current evidence . Ann N Y Acad Sci , 1216 : 144 – 66 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinlock , T W , Gordon , M S , Schwartz , R P , Fitzgerald , T T and O’Grady , K E . 2009 . A randomized clinical trial of methadone maintenance for prisoners: results at 12 months postrelease . J Subst Abuse Treat , 37 : 277 – 85 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magura , S , Lee , J D Hershberger , J . 2009 . Buprenorphine and methadone maintenance in jail and post-release: a randomized clinical trial . Drug Alcohol Depend , 99 : 222 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coviello , D M , Cornish , J W , Lynch , K G , Alterman , A I and O’Brien , C P . 2010 . A randomized trial of oral naltrexone for treating opioid-dependent offenders . Am J Addict , 19 : 422 – 32 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richard , J . 2006 . Judicially mandated naltrexone use by criminal offenders: a legal analysis . Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment , 31 : 121 – 7 .
   Google Scholar
• Domino , K B , Hornbein , T F Polissar , N L . 2005 . Risk factors for relapse in health care professionals with substance use disorders . JAMA , 293 : 1453 – 60 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skipper , G E , Campbell , M D and Dupont , R L . 2009 . Anesthesiologists with substance use disorders: a 5-year outcome study from 16 state physician health programs . Anesth Analg , 109 : 891 – 96 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ling , W and Wesson , D R . 1984 . Naltrexone treatment for addicted health-care professionals: a collaborative private practice experience . J Clin Psychiatry , 45 : 46 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merlo , L J , Greene , W M and Pomm , R . 2011 . Mandatory naltrexone treatment prevents relapse among opiate-dependent anesthesiologists returning to practice . J Addict Med , 5 : 279 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• What is recovery? . 2007 . A working definition from the Betty Ford Institute . J Subst Abuse Treat , 33 : 221 – 8 .
   Google Scholar