371
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Psychoactive plant derivatives (ayahuasca, ibogaine, kratom) and their application in opioid withdrawal and use disorder – a narrative review

, DOORCID Icon, , PhD & , MD

References

  • Keyes KM, Rutherford C, Hamilton A, Barocas JA, Gelberg KH, Mueller PP, Feaster DJ, El-Bassel N, Cerda M. What is the prevalence of and trend in opioid use disorder in the United States from 2010 to 2019? Using multiplier approaches to estimate prevalence for an unknown population size. Drug Alcohol Depend Rep. 2022;3:100052. doi:10.1016/j.dadr.2022.100052.
  • CareSource. Hedis measure: initiation and engagement of alcohol and other drug abuse or dependence treatment (IET); 2021. [Last accessed 2022 Oct 30]. Available from: https://www.caresource.com/documents/ga-mcd-iet-hedis-measure/.
  • Jones CM, McCance-Katz EF. Co-occurring substance use and mental disorders among adults with opioid use disorder. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2019;197:78–82. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.12.030.
  • Mancher CM, Leshner AI, National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine, Health and Medicine Division, Board on Health Sciences Policy, Committee on Medication-Assisted Treatment for Opioid Use Disorder. Barriers to broader use of medications to treat opioid use disorder. In: Mancher, M., Leshner AI, eds. Medications for opioid use disorder save lives. Washington (DC): National Academy of Sciences; 2019:109–136.
  • Smith KE, Lawson T. Prevalence and motivations for kratom use in a sample of substance users enrolled in a residential treatment program. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2017;180:340–8. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.08.034.
  • Swogger MT, Walsh Z. Kratom use and mental health: a systematic review. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2018;183:134–40. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.10.012.
  • Tupper KW, Wood E, Yensen R, Johnson MW. Psychedelic medicine: a re-emerging therapeutic paradigm. CMAJ. 2015;187(14):1054–9. doi:10.1503/cmaj.141124.
  • Veltri C, Grundmann O. Current perspectives on the impact of Kratom use. Subst Abuse Rehabil. 2019;10:23–31. doi:10.2147/SAR.S164261.
  • Winkelman M. Psychedelics as medicines for substance abuse rehabilitation: evaluating treatments with LSD, Peyote, Ibogaine and Ayahuasca. Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2014;7(2):101–16. doi:10.2174/1874473708666150107120011.
  • Bogenschutz MP, Johnson MW. Classic hallucinogens in the treatment of addictions. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2016;64:250–8. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2015.03.002.
  • Bogenschutz MP, Ross S, Bhatt S, Baron T, Forcehimes AA, Laska E, Mennenga SE, O'Donnell K, Owens LT, Podrebarac S, et al. Percentage of heavy drinking days following psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy vs placebo in the treatment of adult patients with alcohol use disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2022;79(10):953–962. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.2096.
  • Konrath EL, Arbo MD, Arbo BD, Hort MA, Elisabetsky E, Leal MB. Plants with anti-addictive potential. In: Barreto GE, Sahebkar A, eds. Pharmacological properties of plant-derived natural products and implications for human health. Vol. 1308. Switzerland AG; Springer, Cham, 2021. p. 185–215.
  • Perkins D, Sarris J, Rossell S, Bonomo Y, Forbes D, Davey C, Hoyer D, Loo C, Murray G, Hood S, et al. Medicinal psychedelics for mental health and addiction: advancing research of an emerging paradigm. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2021;55(12):1127–33. doi:10.1177/0004867421998785.
  • Sessa B, Johnson MW. Can psychedelic compounds play a part in drug dependence therapy? Br J Psychiatry. 2015;206(1):1–3. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.114.148031.
  • Srivastava AB, Mariani JJ, Levin FR. New directions in the treatment of opioid withdrawal. Lancet. 2020;395(10241):1938–48. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30852-7.
  • Baethge C, Goldbeck-Wood S, Mertens S. SANRA-a scale for the quality assessment of narrative review articles. Res Integr Peer Rev. 2019;4:5. doi:10.1186/s41073-019-0064-8.
  • Liester MB, Prickett JI. Hypotheses regarding the mechanisms of ayahuasca in the treatment of addictions. J Psychoact Drugs. 2012;44(3):200–8. doi:10.1080/02791072.2012.704590.
  • Daldegan-Bueno D, Simionato NM, Favaro VM, Maia LO. The current state of ayahuasca research in animal models: a systematic review [Internet]. PsyArXiv; 2022. [last accessed 2022 Sept 1]. Available from: psyarxiv.com/7s3b8.
  • Thelwell E. Why do people take ayahuasca? BBC News; 2014. [accessed 2022 Aug 22]. Available from: https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-27203322. Last
  • Jaffe A. Ayahuasca for addiction? That’s a trip. Psychology Today; 2018 Dec 10. [last accessed 2022 Aug 22]. Available from: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/all-about-addiction/201812/ayahuasca-addiction-thats-trip
  • Thomas G, Lucas P, Capler NR, Tupper KW, Martin G. Ayahuasca-assisted therapy for addiction: results from a preliminary observational study in Canada. Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2013;6(1):30–42. doi:10.2174/15733998113099990003.
  • Graziano S, Orsolini L, Rotolo MC, Tittarelli R, Schifano F, Pichini S. Herbal highs: review on psychoactive effects and neuropharmacology. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2017;15(5):750–61. doi:10.2174/1570159X14666161031144427.
  • Hamill J, Hallak J, Dursun SM, Baker G. Ayahuasca: psychological and physiologic effects, pharmacology and potential uses in addiction and mental illness. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2019;17(2):108–28. doi:10.2174/1570159X16666180125095902.
  • Ruffell SGD, Netzband N, Tsang W, Davies M, Butler M, Rucker JJH, Tofoli LF, Dempster EL, Young AH, Morgan CJA. Ceremonial ayahuasca in Amazonian retreats-mental health and epigenetic outcomes from a six-month naturalistic study. Front Psychiatry. 2021;12:687615. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.687615.
  • Talin P, Sanabria E. Ayahuasca’s entwined efficacy: an ethnographic study of ritual healing from ‘addiction’. Int J Drug Policy. 2017;44:23–30. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.02.017.
  • dos Santos RG. Safety and side effects of ayahuasca in humans–an overview focusing on developmental toxicology. J Psychoact Drugs. 2013;45(1):68–78. doi:10.1080/02791072.2013.763564.
  • Loizaga-Velder A, Verres R. Therapeutic effects of ritual ayahuasca use in the treatment of substance dependence–qualitative results. J Psychoact Drugs. 2014;46(1):63–72. doi:10.1080/02791072.2013.873157.
  • Argento E, Socias ME, Hayashi K, Choi J, Mackay L, Christie D, Milloy MJ, DeBeck K. Psychedelic use is associated with reduced daily opioid use among people who use illicit drugs in a Canadian setting. Int J Drug Policy. 2022;100:103518. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103518.
  • Pisano VD, Putnam NP, Kramer HM, Franciotti KJ, Halpern JH, Holden SC. The association of psychedelic use and opioid use disorders among illicit users in the United States. J Psychopharmacol. 2017;31(5):606–13. doi:10.1177/0269881117691453.
  • Berlowitz I, Walt H, Ghasarian C, Mendive F, Martin-Soelch C. Short-term treatment effects of a substance use disorder therapy involving traditional Amazonian medicine. J Psychoact Drugs. 2019;51(4):323–34. doi:10.1080/02791072.2019.1607956.
  • Nunes AA, Dos Santos RG, Osorio FL, Sanches RF, Crippa JA, Hallak JE. Effects of ayahuasca and its alkaloids on drug dependence: a systematic literature review of quantitative studies in animals and humans. J Psychoact Drugs. 2016;48(3):195–205. doi:10.1080/02791072.2016.1188225.
  • O'Shaughnessy DM, Berlowitz I, Rodd R, Sarnyai Z, Quirk F. Within-treatment changes in a novel addiction treatment program using traditional Amazonian medicine. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2021;11:2045125320986634. doi:10.1177/2045125320986634.
  • Rush B, Marcus O, Garcia S, Loizaga-Velder A, Loewinger G, Spitalier A, Mendive F. Protocol for outcome evaluation of ayahuasca-assisted addiction treatment: the case of Takiwasi Center. Front Pharmacol. 2021;12:659644. doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.659644.
  • Brown TK. Ibogaine in the treatment of substance dependence. Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2013;6(1):3–16. doi:10.2174/15672050113109990001.
  • Koenig X, Hilber K. The anti-addiction drug ibogaine and the heart: a delicate relation. Molecules. 2015;20(2):2208–28. doi:10.3390/molecules20022208.
  • Schenberg EE, de Castro Comis MA, Alexandre JFM, Chaves BDR, Tófoli LF, da Silveira DX. Treating drug dependence with the aid of ibogaine: a qualitative study. J Psychedelic Stud. 2017;1(1):10–9. doi:10.1556/2054.01.2016.002.
  • Oaklander M. Inside ibogaine, one of the most promising and perilous psychedelics for addiction. Time. 2021. [last accessed 2022 Oct 15]. Available from: https://time.com/5951772/ibogaine-drug-treatment-addiction/
  • Glue P, Lockhart M, Lam F, Hung N, Hung CT, Friedhoff L. Ascending-dose study of noribogaine in healthy volunteers: pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, safety, and tolerability. J Clin Pharmacol. 2015;55(2):189–94. doi:10.1002/jcph.404.
  • Malcolm BJ, Polanco M, Barsuglia JP. Changes in withdrawal and craving scores in participants undergoing opioid detoxification utilizing ibogaine. J Psychoact Drugs. 2018;50(3):256–65. doi:10.1080/02791072.2018.1447175.
  • Köck P, Froelich K, Walter M, Lang U, Dursteler KM. A systematic literature review of clinical trials and therapeutic applications of ibogaine. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2022;138:108717. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2021.108717.
  • Davis AK, Barsuglia JP, Windham-Herman AM, Lynch M, Polanco M. Subjective effectiveness of ibogaine treatment for problematic opioid consumption: short- and long-term outcomes and current psychological functioning. J Psychedelic Stud. 2017;1(2):65–73. doi:10.1556/2054.01.2017.009.
  • Mazoyer C, Carlier J, Boucher A, Peoc’h M, Lemeur C, Gaillard Y. Fatal case of a 27-year-old male after taking iboga in withdrawal treatment: GC-MS/MS determination of ibogaine and ibogamine in iboga roots and postmortem biological material. J Forensic Sci. 2013;58(6):1666–72. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.12250.
  • Asua I. Growing menace of ibogaine toxicity. Br J Anaesth. 2013;111(6):1029–30. doi:10.1093/bja/aet396.
  • Marta CJ, Ryan WC, Kopelowicz A, Koek RJ. Mania following use of ibogaine: a case series. Am J Addict. 2015;24(3):203–5. doi:10.1111/ajad.12209.
  • Brown TK, Alper K. Treatment of opioid use disorder with ibogaine: detoxification and drug use outcomes. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2018;44(1):24–36. doi:10.1080/00952990.2017.1320802.
  • Noller GE, Frampton CM, Yazar-Klosinski B. Ibogaine treatment outcomes for opioid dependence from a twelve-month follow-up observational study. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2018;44(1):37–46. doi:10.1080/00952990.2017.1310218.
  • Dickinson J, McAlpin J, Wilkins C, Fitzsimmons C, Guion P, Paterson T, Greene D, Chabes BR. Clinical guidelines for ibogaine-assisted detoxification. The Global Ibogaine Therapy Alliance; 2015. [accessed 2022 Sept 2]. Available from: https://s3.ca-central-1.amazonaws.com/ibosafe-pdf-resources/Ibogaine/Clinical+guidelines+for+ibogaine-assisted+detoxification.pdf
  • Erowid. The vaults of Erowid: psychoactive plants and drugs. 1995. [accessed 2022 Sept 2]. Available from: https://erowid.org/psychoactives/
  • Obembe SB. Common psychoactive drugs. In: Obembe SB, Ed. Practical skills and clinical management of alcoholism & drug addiction. Waltham, MA: Elsevier, Inc.; 2012. p. 11–32. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978012398518700002X.
  • Belgers M, Leenaars M, Homberg JR, Ritskes-Hoitinga M, Schellekens AF, Hooijmans CR. Ibogaine and addiction in the animal model, a systematic review and meta-analysis. Transl Psychiatry. 2016;6(5):e826. doi:10.1038/tp.2016.71.
  • Mash DC, Ameer B, Prou D, Howes JF, Maillet EL. Oral noribogaine shows high brain uptake and anti-withdrawal effects not associated with place preference in rodents. J Psychopharmacol. 2016;30(7):688–97. doi:10.1177/0269881116641331.
  • Ahmad I, Prabowo WC, Arifuddin M, Fadraersada J, Indriyanti N, Herman H, Purwoko RY, Nainu F, Rahmadi A, Paramita S, et al. Mitragyna species as pharmacological agents: from abuse to promising pharmaceutical products. Life (Basel). 2022;12(2):193. doi:10.3390/life12020193.
  • Anwar M, Law R, Schier J. Notes from the field: kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) exposures reported to poison centers - United States, 2010-2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65(29):748–9. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6529a4.
  • Eastlack SC, Cornett EM, Kaye AD. Kratom-pharmacology, clinical implications, and outlook: a comprehensive review. Pain Ther. 2020;9(1):55–69. doi:10.1007/s40122-020-00151-x.
  • Head shop. Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster. [accessed 2022 Sept 8]. Available from: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/head%20shop
  • Garcia-Romeu A, Cox DJ, Smith KE, Dunn KE, Griffiths RR. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): user demographics, use patterns, and implications for the opioid epidemic. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2020;208:107849. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.107849.
  • Oppel RA.Jr. Opioid users call kratom a godsend. The F.D.A. Says it’s a menace. The New York Times. 2019 Apr 17. [accessed 2022 Sept 8]. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/17/us/kratom-overdose-deaths.html.
  • Sharma A, McCurdy CR. Assessing the therapeutic potential and toxicity of Mitragyna speciosa in opioid use disorder. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2021;17(3):255–7. doi:10.1080/17425255.2021.1853706.
  • Thomson J. Kratom vs. CBD: key differences between the herbal drugs taking over U.S. Newsweek. 2022 Aug 31. [accessed 2022 Sept 10]. Available from: https://www.newsweek.com/kratom-cbd-herbal-drugs-increased-usage-americans-1738625.
  • United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Kratom. 2022. [Last accessed 2022 Sept 10]. Available from: https://www.dea.gov/factsheets/kratom
  • Gianutsos G. The DEA changes its mind on kratom. U.S. Pharmacist. 2017;41 (3):7–9. [Last accessed 2022 Sept 10]. Available from: https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/the-dea-changes-its-mind-on-kratom.
  • Bestha D. Kratom and the opioid crisis. Innov Clin Neurosci. 2018;15(5-6):11.
  • Hiranita T, Obeng S, Sharma A, Wilkerson JL, McCurdy CR, McMahon LR. In vitro and in vivo pharmacology of kratom. Adv Pharmacol. 2022;93:35–76. doi:10.1016/bs.apha.2021.10.001.
  • Kruegel AC, Gassaway MM, Kapoor A, Varadi A, Majumdar S, Filizola M, Javitch JA, Sames D. Synthetic and receptor signaling explorations of the mitragyna alkaloids: mitragynine as an atypical molecular framework for opioid receptor modulators. J Am Chem Soc. 2016;138(21):6754–64. doi:10.1021/jacs.6b00360.
  • Kruegel AC, Grundmann O. The medicinal chemistry and neuropharmacology of kratom: a preliminary discussion of a promising medicinal plant and analysis of its potential for abuse. Neuropharmacology. 2018;134(Pt A):108–20. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.08.026.
  • Todd DA, Kellogg JJ, Wallace ED, Khin M, Flores-Bocanegra L, Tanna RS, McIntosh S, Raja HA, Graf TN, Hemby SE, et al. Chemical composition and biological effects of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): in vitro studies with implications for efficacy and drug interactions. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):19158. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-76119-w.
  • Weiss ST, Douglas HE. Treatment of kratom withdrawal and dependence with buprenorphine/naloxone: a case series and systematic literature review. J Addict Med. 2021;15(2):167–72. doi:10.1097/ADM.0000000000000721.
  • Kapp FG, Maurer HH, Auwarter V, Winkelmann M, Hermanns-Clausen M. Intrahepatic cholestasis following abuse of powdered kratom (Mitragyna speciosa). J Med Toxicol. 2011;7(3):227–31. doi:10.1007/s13181-011-0155-5.
  • Prozialeck WC, Edwards JR, Lamar PC, Plotkin BJ, Sigar IM, Grundmann O, Veltri CA. Evaluation of the mitragynine content, levels of toxic metals and the presence of microbes in kratom products purchased in the western suburbs of Chicago. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(15):5512. doi:10.3390/ijerph17155512.
  • Tobarran N, Wolf C, Cumpston KL, Wills BK. Pressure necrosis requiring fasciotomy after kratom overdose. J Addict Med. 2022;16(2):252–3. doi:10.1097/ADM.0000000000000873.
  • Umbehr G, Lukaszewicz M. Acute liver injury following short-term use of the herbal supplement kratom. JAAPA. 2022;35(2):39–41. doi:10.1097/01.JAA.0000805820.94245.3d.
  • Singh D, Muller CP, Vicknasingam BK. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) dependence, withdrawal symptoms and craving in regular users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;139(2):132–7. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.03.017.
  • United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). DEA announces intent to schedule kratom. 2016. [Last accessed 2022 Sept 12]. Available from: https://www.dea.gov/es/node/5295.
  • Trakulsrichai S, Sathirakul K, Auparakkitanon S, Krongvorakul J, Sueajai J, Noumjad N, Sukasem C, Wananukul W. Pharmacokinetics of mitragynine in man. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2015;9:2421–9. doi:10.2147/DDDT.S79658.
  • Bowe A, Kerr PL. A complex case of kratom dependence, depression, and chronic pain in opioid use disorder: effects of buprenorphine in clinical management. J Psychoact Drugs. 2020;52(5):447–52. doi:10.1080/02791072.2020.1773586.
  • Gittins R, Cole S. Buprenorphine for the management of kratom dependency during covid-19: a case report. Drug Science, Policy and Law; 2021, p. 7. doi:10.1177/20503245211021193.
  • Rogers JM, Smith KE, Strickland JC, Epstein DH. Kratom use in the US: both a regional phenomenon and a white middle-class phenomenon? Evidence from NSDUH 2019 and an online convenience sample. Front Pharmacol. 2021;12:789075. doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.789075.
  • Grundmann O. Patterns of kratom use and health impact in the US-results from an online survey. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2017;176:63–70. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.03.007.
  • Schimmel J, Amioka E, Rockhill K, Haynes CM, Black JC, Dart RC, Iwanicki JL. Prevalence and description of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) use in the United States: a cross-sectional study. Addiction. 2021;116(1):176–81. doi:10.1111/add.15082.
  • Singh D, Yeou Chear NJ, Narayanan S, Leon F, Sharma A, McCurdy CR, Avery BA, Balasingam V. Patterns and reasons for kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) use among current and former opioid poly-drug users. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;249:112462. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2019.112462.
  • Harun N, Kamaruzaman NA, Mohamed Sofian Z, Hassan Z. Mini review: potential therapeutic values of mitragynine as an opioid substitution therapy. Neurosci Lett. 2022;773:136500. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2022.136500.
  • Prevete E, Kuypers KPC, Theunissen EL, Corazza O, Bersani G, Ramaekers JG. A systematic review of (pre)clinical studies on the therapeutic potential and safety profile of kratom in humans. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2022;37(1):e2805. doi:10.1002/hup.2805.
  • Hassan R, Pike See C, Sreenivasan S, Mansor SM, Muller CP, Hassan Z. Mitragynine attenuates morphine withdrawal effects in Rats-A comparison with methadone and buprenorphine. Front Psychiatry. 2020;11:411. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00411.
  • Hemby SE, McIntosh S, Leon F, Cutler SJ, McCurdy CR. Abuse liability and therapeutic potential of the Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) alkaloids mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine. Addict Biol. 2019;24(5):874–85. doi:10.1111/adb.12639.
  • Meepong R, Sooksawate T. Mitragynine reduced morphine-induced conditioned place preference and withdrawal in rodents. Thai J Pharm Sci. 2019;43 (1):21–29. [Last accessed 2022 Sept 12]. Available from: http://www.tjps.pharm.chula.ac.th/ojs/index.php/tjps/article/view/892.
  • Yue K, Kopajtic TA, Katz JL. Abuse liability of mitragynine assessed with a self-administration procedure in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl)). 2018;235(10):2823–9. doi:10.1007/s00213-018-4974-9.
  • Wilson LL, Harris HM, Eans SO, Brice-Tutt AC, Cirino TJ, Stacy HM, Simons CA, Leon F, Sharma A, Boyer EW, et al. Lyophilized kratom tea as a therapeutic option for opioid dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2020;216:108310. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108310.
  • Cheaha D, Reakkamnuan C, Nukitram J, Chittrakarn S, Phukpattaranont P, Keawpradub N, Kumarnsit E. Effects of alkaloid-rich extract from Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. on naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal symptoms and local field potential in the nucleus accumbens of mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;208:129–37. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2017.07.008.
  • Fakurazi S, Rahman SA, Hidayat MT, Ithnin H, Moklas MA, Arulselvan P. The combination of mitragynine and morphine prevents the development of morphine tolerance in mice. Molecules. 2013;18(1):666–81. doi:10.3390/molecules18010666.
  • Harun N, Johari IS, Mansor SM, Shoaib M. Assessing physiological dependence and withdrawal potential of mitragynine using schedule-controlled behaviour in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl)). 2020;237(3):855–67. doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05418-6.
  • Kosten TR, Baxter LE. Review article: effective management of opioid withdrawal symptoms: a gateway to opioid dependence treatment. Am J Addict. 2019;28(2):55–62. doi:10.1111/ajad.12862.
  • Kampman K, Jarvis M, American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). National practice guideline for the use of medications in the treatment of addiction involving opioid use. J Addict Med. 2015;9(5):358–67. doi:10.1097/ADM.0000000000000166.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.