Social Sharing of Political Disinformation: Effects of Tie Strength, Message Valence, and Corrective Information on Evaluations of Political Figures

References

• Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(2), 211–236. doi:10.1257/jep.31.2.211
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Press Institute (2017, March 20). ‘Who shared it?’ How Americans decide what news to trust on social media. Retrieved from https://www.americanpressinstitute.org/publications/reports/survey-research/trust-social-media/
   Google Scholar
• Appelman, A., & Sundar, S. S. (2016). Measuring message credibility: Construction and validation of an exclusive scale. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 93(1), 59–79. doi:10.1177/1077699015606057
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Review of General Psychology, 5(4), 323–370. doi:10.1037//1089-2680.5.4.323
   Google Scholar
• Cobb, M. D., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2013). Beliefs don’t always persevere: How political figures are punished when positive information about them is discredited. Political Psychology, 34(3), 307–326. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00935.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook, J., Ecker, U., & Lewandowsky, S. (2015). Misinformation and how to correct it. In R. A. Scott & M. C. Buchmann (Eds.), Emerging trends in the social and behavioral sciences: An interdisciplinary, searchable, and linkable resource (pp. 1–17). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Costera Meijer, I., & Groot Kormelink, T. (2015). Checking, sharing, clicking and linking: Changing patterns of news use between 2004 and 2014. Digital Journalism, 3(5), 664–679. doi:10.1080/21670811.2014.937149
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diehl, T., Weeks, B. E., & de Zúñiga, H. G. (2016). Political persuasion on social media: Tracing direct and indirect effects of news use and social interaction. New Media & Society, 18(9), 1875–1895. doi:10.1177/1461444815616224
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellison, N. B., Vitak, J., Gray, R., & Lampe, C. (2014). Cultivating social resources on social network sites: Facebook relationship maintenance behaviors and their role in social capital processes. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 19(4), 855–870. doi:10.1111/jcc4.12078
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fridkin, K. L., & Kenney, P. J. (2004). Do negative messages work? The impact of negativity on citizens’ evaluations of candidates. American Politics Research, 32(5), 570–605. doi:10.1177/1532673x03260834
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gabielkov, M., Ramachandran, A., Chaintreau, A., & Legout, A. (2016). Social clicks. In S. Alouf, A. Jean-Marie, N. Hegde, & A. Proutière (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2016 ACM SIGMETRICS international conference on measurement and modeling of computer science - SIGMETRICS ‘16 (pp. 179–192). New York, NY: ACM Press. doi:10.1145/2896377.2901462
   Google Scholar
• Galtung, J., & Ruge, M. H. (1965). The structure of foreign news. Journal of Peace Research, 2(1), 64–91. doi:10.1177/002234336500200104
   Google Scholar
• Granovetter, M. S. (1973). The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78(6), 1360–1380. doi:10.1086/225469
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guess, A., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2018, January 9). Selective exposure to misinformation: Evidence from the consumption of fake news during the 2016 US presidential campaign. European Research Council. Retrieved from http://www.ask-force.org/web/Fundamentalists/Guess-Selective-Exposure-to-Misinformation-Evidence-Presidential-Campaign-2018.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Harcup, T., & O’Neill, D. (2001). What is news? Galtung and Ruge revisited. Journalism Studies, 2(2), 261–280. doi:10.1080/14616700118449
   Google Scholar
• Hilbig, B. E. (2009). Sad, thus true: Negativity bias in judgments of truth. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 983–986. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.04.012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hocevar, K. P., Flanagin, A. J., & Metzger, M. J. (2014). Social media self-efficacy and information evaluation online. Computers in Human Behavior, 39, 254–262. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.07.020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horn, J. L. (1965). A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 30(2), 179–185. doi:10.1007/BF02289447
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hovland, C. I., Janis, I. L., & Kelley, H. H. (1953). Communication and persuasion: Psychological studies of opinion change. American Sociological Review, 19(3), 355. doi:10.2307/2087772
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huddy, L., & Terkildsen, N. (1993). The consequences of gender stereotypes for women candidates at different levels and types of office. Political Research Quarterly, 46(3), 503–525. doi:10.1177/106591299304600304
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang, H., Bae, K., Zhang, S., & Sundar, S. S. (2011). Source cues in online news: Is the proximate source more powerful than distal sources? Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 88(4), 719–736. doi:10.1177/107769901108800403
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, K., & McCombs, M. (2007). News story descriptions and the public’s opinions of political candidates. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 84(2), 299–314. doi:10.1177/107769900708400207
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krämer, N., Rösner, L., Eimler, S., Winter, S., & Neubaum, G. (2014). Let the weakest link go! Empirical explorations on the relative importance of weak and strong ties on social networking sites. Societies, 4(4), 785–809. doi:10.3390/soc4040785
   Google Scholar
• Lee, E.-J., & Jang, Y. J. (2010). What do others’ reactions to news on internet portal sites tell us? Effects of presentation format and readers’ need for cognition on reality perception. Communication Research, 37(6), 825–846. doi:10.1177/0093650210376189
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lengauer, G., Esser, F., & Berganza, R. (2012). Negativity in political news: A review of concepts, operationalizations and key findings. Journalism, 13(2), 179–202. doi:10.1177/1464884911427800
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K., & Cook, J. (2017). Beyond misinformation: Understanding and coping with the “post-truth” era. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6(4), 353–369. doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.07.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N., & Cook, J. (2012). Misinformation and its correction: Continued influence and successful debiasing. Psychological Science in the Public Interest: A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 13(3), 106–131. doi:10.1177/1529100612451018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewicka, M. (1997). Rational or uncommitted? Depression and indecisiveness in interpersonal decision making. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 38(3), 227–236. doi:10.1111/1467-9450.00031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lodge, M., McGraw, K. M., & Stroh, P. (1989). An impression-driven model of candidate evaluation. American Political Science Review, 83(2), 399–419. doi:10.2307/1962397
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neubaum, G., & Krämer, N. C. (2015). Let’s blog about health! Exploring the persuasiveness of a personal HIV blog compared to an institutional HIV website. Health Communication, 30(9), 872–883. doi:10.1080/10410236.2013.856742
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2010). When corrections fail: The persistence of political misperceptions. Political Behavior, 32(2), 303–330. doi:10.1007/s11109-010-9112-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozturk, P., Li, H., & Sakamoto, Y. (2015, January). Combating rumor spread on social media: The effectiveness of refutation and warning. In Proceedings of the 48th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (pp. 2406–2414), Kauai, Hawaii, USA. IEEE. doi:10.1109/HICSS.2015.288
   Google Scholar
• Peeters, G., & Czapinski, J. (1990). Positive-negative asymmetry in evaluations: The distinction between affective and informational negativity effects. European Review of Social Psychology, 1(1), 33–60. doi:10.1080/14792779108401856
   Google Scholar
• Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2019). Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. Cognition, 188, 39–50. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2018.06.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., & Briñol, P. (2008). Persuasion: From single to multiple to metacognitive processes. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(2), 137–147. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00071.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rozin, P., & Royzman, E. B. (2001). Negativity bias, negativity dominance, and contagion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(4), 296–320. doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0504_2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarz, A. (2006). The theory of newsworthiness applied to Mexico’s press. How the news factors influence foreign news coverage in a transitional country. Communications, 31(1), 45–64. doi:10.1515/COMMUN.2006.004
   Google Scholar
• Shearer, E., & Gottfried, J. (2017, September 7th). News use across social media platforms 2017. Pew Research Center, Washington D.C. Retrieved from http://www.journalism.org/2017/09/07/news-use-across-social-media-platforms-2017/
   Google Scholar
• Silverman, C. (2016, November 16). This analysis shows how viral fake election news stories outperformed real news on Facebook. Retrieved from https://www.buzzfeed.com/craigsilverman/viral-fake-election-news-outperformed-real-news-on-facebook
   Google Scholar
• Tandoc, E. C., Lim, Z. W., & Ling, R. (2018). Defining “fake news.” Digital Journalism, 6(2), 137–153. doi:10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorson, E. (2016). Belief echoes: The persistent effects of corrected misinformation. Political Communication, 33(3), 460–480. doi:10.1080/10584609.2015.1102187
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turcotte, J., York, C., Irving, J., Scholl, R. M., & Pingree, R. J. (2015). News recommendations from social media opinion leaders: Effects on media trust and information seeking. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 20(5), 520–535. doi:10.1111/jcc4.12127
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Aelst, P., Strömbäck, J., Aalberg, T., Esser, F., De Vreese, C., Matthes, J., … Papathanassopoulos, S. (2017). Political communication in a high-choice media environment: A challenge for democracy? Annals of the International Communication Association, 41(1), 3–27. doi:10.1080/23808985.2017.1288551
   Google Scholar
• Von Sikorski, C., & Hänelt, M. (2016). Scandal 2.0: How valenced reader comments affect recipients’ perception of scandalized individuals and the journalistic quality of news. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 93(3), 551–571. doi:10.1177/1077699016628822
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science, 359(6380), 1146–1151. doi:10.1126/science.aap9559
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walter, N., & Murphy, S. T. (2018). How to unring the bell: A meta-analytic approach to correction of misinformation. Communication Monographs, 85(3), 423–441. doi:10.1080/03637751.2018.1467564
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winter, S., Brückner, C., & Krämer, N. C. (2015). They came, they liked, they commented: Social influence on Facebook news channels. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 18(8), 431–436. doi:10.1089/cyber.2015.0005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar