Notes
- Mohamed Ali, “Youth Unemployment: A Global Security Challenge,” Harvard International Review, September 2012. Available at http://hir.harvard.edu/article/?a=7296 (accessed 4 October 2017); Mangai Natarajan, “Crime in Developing Countries: The Contribution of Crime Science.” Crime Science 5, no. 8 (2016): 8; Stergios Skaperdas, Rodrigo Soares, Alys Willman, and Stephen C. Miller, The Costs of Violence (Washington, DC: Social Development Department, The World Bank, 2009); United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime. Crime, Violence, and Development: Trends, Costs, and Policy Options in the Caribbean (New York, NY: United Nations, 2007).
- World Bank. Systems of Cities: Harnessing Urbanization for Growth and Poverty Alleviation (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2009).
- Robert Muggah, Researching the Urban Dilemma: Urbanization, Poverty and Violence (Ottawa, Canada: International Development Research Centre, 2012).
- UN-Habitat. State of Urban Youth Report 2012–2013: Youth in the Prosperity of Cities (Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Human Settlements Programme Routledge, 2013).
- Ibid.
- United Nations. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision (New York: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, 2014).
- Ali, “Youth Unemployment”; Stephen W. Baron and Timothy F. Hartnagel, [Attributions, Affect, and Crime: Street Youths' Reactions to Unemployment,” Criminology 35, no. 8 (1997): 409–434; Stefan Kühn, Santo Milasi, Richard Horne, and Sheena Yoon, World Employment Social Outlook. Trends for Youth 2016 (Geneva: ILO: International Labour Office, 2016); David Turnham and Deniz Eröcal, “Unemployment in Developing Countries: New Light on an Old Problem” ( No. 22, OECD Publishing, OECD Development Centre Working Papers, Paris, 1990).
- Baron and Hartnagel, “Attributions, Affect, and Crime”; Deborah Belle and Heather E. Bullock, SPSSI Policy Statement: The Psychological Consequences of Unemployment Psychological Consequences of Unemployment (The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, 2010).
- Ayodeji O. Bayo, “Systemic Frustration Paradigm: A New Approach to Explaining Terrorism,” Alternatives: Turkish Journal of International Relations 7, no. 8 (2008).
- Ali, “Youth Unemployment”; Hannah Íris Atladóttir, “Unemployment and Crime Panel Data Analysis for Europe,” Erasmus University Rotterdam (2015): 17–25; ; Chor Foon-Tang, “An Exploration of Dynamic Relationship between Tourist Arrivals, Inflation, Unemployment and Crime Rates in Malaysia,” International Journal of Social Economics 38, no. 8 (2011): 50–69; ; Denis Fougère, Francis Kramarz, and Julien Pouget, “Youth Unemployment and Crime in France,” Journal of the European Economic Association 7, no. 8 (2009): 909–938.
- Robert Agnew, “Foundation for a General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency,” Criminology 30, no. 8 (1992): 47–88.
- Ebbe B. Ebbesen, Birt Duncan, and Vladimir J. Konecni, “Effects of Content of Verbal Aggression on Future Verbal Aggression: A Field Experiment,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 11, no. 8 (1975): 192–204.
- Ralph Catalano, David Dooley, Raymond W. Novaco, Richard Hough, and Georjeanna Wilson, “Using ECA Survey Data to Examine the Effect of Job Layoffs on Violent Behavior,” Psychiatric Services 44, no. 8 (1993): 874–879; Ralph Catalano, Raymond W. Novaco, and William McConnell, “Layoffs and Violence Revisited,” Aggressive Behavior 28, no. 8 (2002): 233–247.
- Andersen E. Allan and Darrell J. Steffensmeier, “Youth, Underemployment, and Property Crime: Differential Effects of Job Availability and Job Quality on Juvenile and Young Adult Arrest Rates,” American Sociological Review 54, no. 8 (1989): 107–123.
- Herschell I. Grossman, “A General Equilibrium Model of Insurrections,” American Economic Review 81, no. 8 (1991): 912–921.
- Jonathan R. Beloff, “How Piracy is Affecting Economic Development in Puntland, Somalia,” Journal of Strategic Security 6, no. 8 (2013): 47; Raymond Gilpin, Counting the Costs of Somali Piracy (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2009).
- Raul Caruso and Evelina Gavrilova, “Youth Unemployment, Terrorism and Political Violence, Evidence from the Israeli/Palestinian Conflict,” Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy 18, no. 8 (2012); Kevin B. Goldstein, “Unemployment, Inequality and Terrorism: Another Look at the Relationship between Economics and Terrorism,” Undergraduate Economic Review 1, no. 8 (2005): 6; Aisha Ismail and Shehla Amjad, “Cointegration-Causality Analysis between Terrorism and Key Macroeconomic Indicators: Evidence from Pakistan,” International Journal of Social Economics 41, no. 8 (2014): 664–682; Clare Richardson, Relative Deprivation Theory in Terrorism: A Study of Higher Education and Unemployment as Predictors of Terrorism (Politics Department, New York University, 2011); Caruso and Gavrilova, “Youth Unemployment, Terrorism and Political Violence, Evidence from the Israeli/Palestinian Conflict.”
- Ismail and Amjad, “Cointegration-Causality Analysis between Terrorism and Key Macroeconomic Indicators.”
- Richardson. Relative Deprivation Theory in Terrorism.
- Ibid., p. 4.
- Goldstein, “Unemployment, Inequality and Terrorism.”
- James A. Piazza, “Rooted in Poverty?: Terrorism, Poor Economic Development, and Social Cleavages,” Terrorism and Political Violence 18, no. 8 (2006): 159–177.
- Christopher Cramer, Unemployment and Participation in Violence, ( World Development Report Background Paper, Washington, DC: World Bank, 2011).
- Mercy Corps, Examining the Links Between Youth Economic Opportunity, Civic Engagement and Conflict: Evidence from Mercy Corps' Somali Youth Leaders Initiative, (Portland, OR: Mercy Corps, 2013).
- Eli Berman, Michael Callen, Joseph H. Felter, and Jacob N. Shapiro, “Do Working Men Rebel? Insurgency and Unemployment in Afghanistan, Iraq, and the Philippines,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 55, no. 8 (2011): 496–528; Alan B. Krueger and Jitka Malečková, “Education, Poverty and Terrorism: Is there a Causal Connection?,” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 17, no. 8 (2003): 119–144.
- Graeme Blair, Christine C. Fair, Neil Malhotra, and Jacob N. Shapiro, “Poverty and Support for Militant Politics: Evidence from Pakistan,” American Journal of Political Science 57, no. 8 (2013): 30–48.
- World Bank, “Indicators.” Available at https://data.worldbank.org/indicator?tab=all (accessed 10 October 2017).
- Ibid.
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, “Employment Rate by Age Group.” Available at https://data.oecd.org/emp/employment-rate-by-age-group.htm (accessed 20 October 2017).
- Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency. 2014 Labour Force Survey (Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe: Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency, 2015).
- Akanni A. Abimbola, “History of Terrorism, Youth Psychology and Unemployment in Nigeria,” Journal of Pan African Studies 7, no. 8 (2014): 65–76; Macartan Humphreys and Jeremy M. Weinstein, “Who Fights? The Determinants of Participation in Civil War,” American Journal of Political Science 52, no. 8 (2008): 436–455; Jon Kurt, Understanding Political Violence among Youth: Evidence from Kenya on the Links between Youth, Economic Independence, Social Integration, and Stability (Kenya, Nairobi: Mercy Corps, 2011); Odinaka O. Ajaegbu, “Rising Youth Unemployment and Violent Crime in Nigeria,” American Journal of Social Issues and Humanities 2, no. 8 (2012); Caruso and Gavrilova, “Youth Unemployment, Terrorism and Political Violence, Evidence from the Israeli/Palestinian Conflict,”; Therese F. Azeng and Thierry U. Yogo, “Youth Unemployment and Political Instability in Selected Developing Countries” (African Development Bank Group Working Paper, no. 171, 2013).
- Lorenzo Vidino and Seamus Hughes, ISIS in America: From Retweets to Raqqa ( Program on Extremism, Washington, DC: The George Washington University, 2015).
- Christian G. Mesquida and Neil I. Wiener, “Male Age Composition and Severity of Conflicts,” Politics and the Life Sciences 18, no. 8 (1999): 181–189.
- Caruso and Gavrilova, “Youth Unemployment, Terrorism and Political Violence, Evidence from the Israeli/Palestinian Conflict.”
- Anat Berko, Edna Erez, and Oren M. Gur, “Terrorism as Self-Help: Accounts of Palestinian Youth Incarcerated in Israeli Prisons for Security Violations,” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 33, no. 8 (2017): 313–340.
- Ibid.
- Kurt. Understanding Political Violence among Youth.
- Teri Ooms, Gang Recruitment (Wilkes-Barre, PA: The Institute for Public Policy & Economic Development, 2013).
- Caruso and Gavrilova. “Youth Unemployment, Terrorism and Political Violence, Evidence from the Israeli/Palestinian Conflict.”
- Allan and Steffensmeier. “Youth, Underemployment, and Property Crime.”
- Lauren J. Krivo and Ruth D. Peterson, “Labor Market Conditions and Violent Crime among Youth and Adults,” Sociological Perspectives 47, no. 8 (2004): 485–505.
- Teresa A. Sullivan, Marginal Workers, Marginal Jobs: The Underutilization of American Workers (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1978).
- Bernd Beber and Christopher Blattman, [The Industrial Organization of Rebellion: The Logic of Forced Labor and Child Soldiering,” (Working Paper, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 2010).
- Ismail and Amjad. “Cointegration-Causality Analysis between Terrorism and Key Macroeconomic Indicators.”
- Caruso and Gavrilova. “Youth Unemployment, Terrorism and Political Violence, Evidence from the Israeli/Palestinian Conflict.”
- James Honaker, “Unemployment and Violence in Northern Ireland: A Missing Data Model for Ecological Inference” (Working Paper, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 2008).
- White, “On Measuring Political Violence: Northern Ireland, 1969 to 1980,” American Sociological Review 58, no. 8 (1993): 575–585.
- John L. Thompson, “Deprivation and Political Violence in Northern Ireland, 1922–1985: A Time-Series Analysis,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 33, no. 8 (1989): 676–699.
- Jülide Yildirim and Nadir Öcal, “Analyzing the Determinants of Terrorism in Turkey using Geographically Weighted Regression,” Defence and Peace Economics 24, no. 8 (2013): 195–209.
- Goldstein. “Unemployment, Inequality and Terrorism”; Piazza. “Rooted in Poverty?”; Richardson. Relative Deprivation Theory in Terrorism.
- Honaker, “Unemployment and Violence in Northern Ireland”; Thompson. “Deprivation and Political Violence in Northern Ireland, 1922–1985”; Henrik Urdal, “A Clash of Generations? Youth Bulges and Political Violence,” International Studies Quarterly 50, no. 8 (2006): 607–629; Robert W. White, “On Measuring Political Violence: Northern Ireland, 1969 to 1980,” American Sociological Review 58, no. 8 (1993): 575–585.
- Honaker. “Unemployment and Violence in Northern Ireland”; Piazza. “Rooted in Poverty?”; Thompson. “Deprivation and Political Violence in Northern Ireland, 1922–1985”; White. “On Measuring Political Violence.”
- Claude S. Fischer, “The Subcultural Theory of Urbanism: A Twentieth-Year Assessment,” American Journal of Sociology 101, no. 8 (1995): 543–577.
- Shane Blackman, “Subculture Theory: An Historical and Contemporary Assessment of the Concept for Understanding Deviance,” Deviant Behavior 35, no. 8 (2014): 496–512.
- Donald R. Cressey, “Criminological Theory, Social Science, and the Repression of Crime,” Criminology 16, no. 8 (1978): 171–191.
- Gary LaFree, Laura Dugan, Heather V. Fogg, and Jeffrey Scott, Document Title: Building a Global Terrorism Database (Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice 2006, 2006).
- Sue Mahan and Pamala L. Griset, Terrorism in Perspective (3rd ed.) (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013).
- Global Terrorism Database. Codebook: Inclusion Criteria and Variables (College Park, MD: University of Maryland, National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, 2017).
- World Bank. Systems of Cities.
- Transparency International. “What is Corruption?” Available at https://www.transparency.org/what-is-corruption (accessed 17 October 2017).
- Muhammad Bakashmar, “Winning the Battles, Losing the War? An Assessment of Counterterrorism in Malaysia,” Terrorism and Political Violence 20, no. 8 (2008): 480–497; Lesley Brown and Paul Wilson, “Putting the Crime back into Terrorism: The Philippines Perspective,” Asian Journal of Criminology 2, no. 8 (2007): 35–46.
- Charles A. Malgwi and Charles A. Malgwi, “Corollaries of Corruption and Bribery on International Business,” Journal of Financial Crime 23, no. 8 (2016): 948–964; Louise I. Shelley, “Understanding Post-Soviet Transitions: Corruption, Collusion and Clientelism,” Slavic Review 68, no. 8 (2009): 204–205.
- Patrick Hardouin, “Banks Governance and Public-Private Partnership in Preventing and Confronting Organized Crime, Corruption and Terrorism Financing,” Journal of Financial Crime 16, no. 8 (2009): 199–209.
- Paul Carrington, “International Corrupt Practices Law,” Michigan Journal of International Law 129 (2009): 140; Kenneth Murray, “The uses of Irresistible Inference: Protecting the System from Criminal Penetration through more Effective Prosecution of Money Laundering Offences,” Journal of Money Laundering Control 14, no. 8 (2011): 7–15; Hussein Solomon, “Counter-Terrorism in Nigeria: Responding to Boko Haram,” The RUSI Journal 157, no. 8 (2012): 6–11.
- Transparency International. “Corruption Perceptions Index 2016.” Available at https://www.transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_perceptions_index_2016 (accessed 17 October 2017).
- Freedom House. “Freedom in the World 2017.” Available at https://freedomhouse.org/report/methodology-freedom-world-2017 (accessed 22 October 2017).
- Alan B. Krueger and David D. Laitin, “Kto Kogo?: A Cross-Country Study of the Origins and Targets of Terrorism,” Terrorism, Economic Development, and Political Openness (2008): 148–173.
- Quan Li, “Does Democracy Promote or Reduce Transnational Terrorist Incidents?,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 49, no. 8 (2005): 278–297.
- Jose Tavares, “The Open Society Assesses its Enemies: Shocks, Disasters and Terrorist Attacks,” Journal of Monetary Economics 51, no. 8 (2004): 1039–1070.
- Fund for Peace. Fragile States Index Methodology and Cast Framework (Washington, DC: Fund for Peace, 2017).
- Chelli Plummer, “Failed States and Connections to Terrorist Activity,” International Criminal Justice Review 22, no. 8 (2012): 416–449.
- Johan Holmgren, Terrorism: And its Connection to Failed States (Master's Thesis, Jönköping, Sweden, Jönköping International Business School, 2008).
- James A. Piazza, “Incubators of Terror: Do Failed and Failing States Promote Transnational Terrorism?,” International Studies Quarterly 52, no. 8 (2008): 469–488.
- Gabriel Moser, Eugénia Ratiu, and Ghozlane Fleury-Bahi, “Appropriation and Interpersonal Relationships: From Dwelling to City through the Neighborhood,” Environment and Behavior 34, no. 8 (2002): 122–136.
- Erin Lashta, Loleen Berdahl, and Ryan Walker, “Interpersonal Contact and Attitudes towards Indigenous Peoples in Canada's Prairie Cities,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 39, no. 8 (2016): 1242–1260.
- David F. Greenberg, Ronald C. Kessler, and Charles H. Logan, “A Panel Model of Crime Rates and Arrest Rates,” American Sociological Review 44, no. 8 (1979): 843–850.
- Fischer, “The Subcultural Theory of Urbanism.”
- World Bank. Systems of Cities.
- Matthias Basedau, Georg Strüver, Johannes Vüllers, and Tim Wegenast, “Do Religious Factors Impact Armed Conflict? Empirical Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa,” Terrorism and Political Violence 23, no. 8 (2011): 752–779; Caleb Slayton, “Underselling Islamist Extremism in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Defense & Security Analysis 31, no. 8 (2015): 123–136.
- Pew Research Center. Global Religious Diversity: Half of the Most Religiously Diverse Countries are in Asia-Pacific Region (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, 2014).
- William H Greene, LIMDEP ( Version 5.1.) (New York, NY: Econometric Software, 1990).
- Ibid, pp. E11–44.
- Jerry A. Hausman, “Specification Tests in Econometrics,” Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society 46, no. 8 (1978): 1251–1271.
- William H Greene, LIMDEP ( Version 5.1.), pp. E11–36.
- Nathaniel Beck, “Time-Series-Cross-Section Data: What have we Learned in the Past Few Years?,” Annual Review of Political Science 4, no. 8 (2001): 271–293.
- Thomas Plümper and Vera E. Troeger, “Efficient Estimation of Time-Invariant and Rarely Changing Variables in Finite Sample Panel Analyses with Unit Fixed Effects,” Political Analysis 15, no. 8 (2007): 124–139.
- Caruso and Gavrilova. “Youth Unemployment, Terrorism and Political Violence, Evidence from the Israeli/Palestinian Conflict.”
- Goldstein. “Unemployment, Inequality and Terrorism.”
- Ismail and Amjad. “Cointegration-Causality Analysis between Terrorism and Key Macroeconomic Indicators.”
- Richardson. Relative Deprivation Theory in Terrorism.
- Piazza. “Rooted in Poverty?”
- Ibid.
- Klaus F. Zimmermann, Costanza Biavaschi, Werner Eichhorst, Corrado Giulietti, Michael J. Kendzia, Alexander Muravyev, Janneke Pieters, Núria Rodríguez-Planas, and Ricarda Schmidl, “Youth Unemployment and Vocational Training,” Foundations and Trends in Microeconomics 9, no. 8 (2013): 1–157.