Epistemic Vulnerability: Theory and Measurement at the System Level

References

• Aalberg, T., & Curran, J. (2012). How media inform democracy: A comparative approach. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203803448
   Google Scholar
• Aalberg, T., van Aelst, P., & Curran, J. (2010). Media systems and the political information environment: A cross-national comparison. The International Journal of Press/politics, 15(3), 255–271. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161210367422
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social media and fake news in the 2016 election. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(2), 211–236. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.2.211
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arceneaux, K., Johnson, M., & Murphy, C. B. (2012). Polarized political communication, oppositional media hostility, and selective exposure. The Journal of Politics, 74(1), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1017/s002238161100123x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ariely, G. (2015). Does commercialized political coverage undermine political trust?: Evidence across European countries. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 59(3), 438–455. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2015.1055000
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barthel, M., Mitchell, A., & Holcomb, J. (2016). Many Americans believe fake news is sowing confusion. Pew Research Center’s Journalism Project. http://www.journalism.org/2016/12/15/many-americans-believe-fake-news-is-sowing-confusion/
   Google Scholar
• Benkler, Y., Faris, R., & Roberts, H. (2018). Network Propaganda: Manipulation, disinformation, and radicalization in American Politics. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190923624.001.0001
   Google Scholar
• Bennett, W. L., & Livingston, S. (2018). The disinformation order: Disruptive communication and the decline of democratic institutions. European Journal of Communication, 33(2), 122–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323118760317
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benson, J. (2023). Democracy and thE epistemic problems of political polarization. The American Political Science Review, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055423001089
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergman, E. (2018). Conspiracy & populism: The politics of misinformation. Palgrave MacMillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90359-0
   Google Scholar
• Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1995). Towards a comparative framework for political communication research. In J. Blumler & M. Gurevitch (Eds.), The crisis of public communication (pp. 237). Routledge. Original work published 1975.
   Google Scholar
• Brüggeman, M., Engesser, S., Büchel, F., Humprecht, E., & Castro, L. (2014). Hallin and Mancini revisited: Four empirical types of western media systems. Journal of Communication, 64(6), 1037–1065. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12127
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castro-Herrero, L., Nir, L., & Skovsgaard, M. (2018). Bridging gaps in cross-cutting media exposure: The role of public service broadcasting. Political Communication, 35(4), 542–565. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2018.1476424
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chadwick, A., Vaccari, C., & O’Loughlin, B. (2018). Do tabloids poison the well of social media? Explaining democratically dysfunctional news sharing. New Media & Society, 20(11), 4255–4274. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818769689
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christner, C. (2022). Populist attitudes and conspiracy beliefs: Exploring the relation between the latent structures of populist attitudes and conspiracy beliefs. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 10(1), 72–85. https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.7969
   Google Scholar
• Curran, J., Iyengar, S., Lund, A. B., & Salovaara-Moring, I. (2009). Media system, public knowledge and democracy: A comparative study. European Journal of Communication, 24(1), 5–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323108098943
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daniller, A. M., Allen, D., Tallevi, A., & Mutz, D. C. (2017). Measuring trust in the press in a changing media environment. Communication Methods and Measures, 11(1), 76–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2016.1271113
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Douglas, K. M., Sutton, R. M., & Cichocka, A. (2017). The psychology of conspiracy theories. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(6), 538–542. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417718261
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Schmid, P., Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N., Kendeou, P., Vraga, E. K., & Amazeen, M. A. (2022). The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance to correction. Nature Reviews Psychology, 1(1), 13–29. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-021-00006-y
   Google Scholar
• Engelke, K. M., Hase, V., & Wintterlin, F. (2019). On measuring trust and distrust in journalism: Reflection of the status quo and suggestion for the road ahead. Journal of Trust Research, 9(1), 66–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/21515581.2019.1588741
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esser, F., de Vreese, C. H., Strömbäck, J., van Aelst, P., Aalberg, T., Stanyer, J., Lengauer, G., Berganza, R., Legnante, G., Papathanassopoulos, S., Salgado, S., Sheafer, T., & Reinemann, C. (2012). Political information opportunities in Europe: A longitudinal and comparative study of thirteen television systems. The International Journal of Press/politics, 17(3), 247–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161212442956
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fawzi, N. (2019). Untrustworthy news and the media as “enemy of the people?” How a populist worldview shapes recipients’ attitudes toward the Media. The International Journal of Press/politics, 24(2), 146–164. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161218811981
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fawzi, N., Steindl, N., Obermaier, M., Prochazka, F., Arlt, D., Blöbaum, B., Dohle, M., Engelke, K. M., Hanitzsch, T., Jackob, N., Jakobs, I., Klawier, T., Post, S., Reinemann, C., Schweiger, W., & Ziegele, M. (2021). Concepts, causes and consequences of trust in news media – a literature review and framework. Annals of the International Communication Association, 45(2), 154–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2021.1960181
   Google Scholar
• Fisher, C. (2016). The trouble with ‘trust’ in news media. Communication Research & Practice, 2(4), 451–465. https://doi.org/10.1080/22041451.2016.1261251
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gronke, P., & Cook, T. E. (2007). Disdaining the media: The American public’s changing attitudes toward the news. Political Communication, 24, 259–281. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584600701471591 3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallin, D. C., & Mancini, P. (2004). Comparing Media Systems. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hameleers, M. (2023). The (Un)intended consequences of emphasizing the threats of mis- and disinformation. Media and Communication, 11(2), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v11i2.6301
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanitzsch, T., Dalen, A., & Steindl, N. (2018). Caught in the nexus: A comparative and longitudinal analysis of public trust in the press. The International Journal of Press/politics, 23(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161217740695
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoes, E., Aitken, B., Zhang, J., Gackowski, T., & Wojcieszak, M. (2023). Prominent misinformation interventions reduce misperceptions but increase Skepticism. Nature Human Behavior, 1–116. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/zmpdu
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Humprecht, E., Castro Herrero, L., Blassnig, S., Brüggeman, M., & Engesser, S. (2022). Media Systems in the Digital Age: An Empirical Comparison of 30 Countries. Journal of Communication, 00, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqab054
   Google Scholar
• Humprecht, E., Esser, F., & Van Aelst, P. (2020). Resilience to online disinformation: A framework for cross-national comparative research. The International Journal of Press/politics, 25(3), 493–516. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161219900126
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Humprecht, E., Esser, F., Van Aelst, P., Staender, A., & Morosoli, S. (2021). The sharing of disinformation in cross-national comparison: Analyzing patterns of resilience. Information, Communication & Society, 26(7), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2021.2006744
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imhoff, R., Zimmer, F., Klein, O., António, J. H. C., Babinska, M., Bangerter, A., Bilewicz, M., Blanuša, N., Bovan, K., Bužarovska, R., Cichocka, A., Delouvée, S., Douglas, K. M., Dyrendal, A., Etienne, T., Gjoneska, B., Graf, S., Gualda, E. … Žeželj, I. (2022). Conspiracy mentality and political orientation across 26 countries. Nature Human Behaviour, 6(3), 392–403. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01258-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacovina, M. E., Hinze, S. R., & Rapp, D. N. (2014). Fool me twice: The consequences of reading (and rereading) inaccurate information. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 28(4), 558–568. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3035
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kapantai, E., Christopoulou, A., Berberidis, C., & Peristeras, V. (2020). A systematic literature review on disinformation: Toward a unified taxonomy. New Media & Society, 23(5), 1301–1326. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820959296
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohring, M., & Matthes, J. (2007). Trust in news media: Development and validation of a multidimensional scale. Communication Research, 34(2), 231–252. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650206298071
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krange, O., Kaltenbrorn, B., & Hultman, M. (2021). “Don’t confuse me with facts”—how right wing populism affects trust in agencies advocating anthropogenic climate change as a reality. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 8(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-021-00930-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Laakso, M., & Taagepera, R. (1979). The ‘Effective’ number of parties: A measure with application to West Europe. Comparative Political Studies, 12(1), 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/001041407901200101
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Labarre, J. (2024). French Fox News? Audience-level metrics for the comparative study of news audience hyperpartisanship. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2023.2300845
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, T. T. (2010). Why they Don’t trust the media: An examination of factors predicting trust. American Behavioral Scientist, 54(1), 8–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764210376308
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Livio, O., & Cohen, J. (2018). ‘Fool me once, shame on you’: Direct personal experience and media trust. Journalism, 19(5), 684–698. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884916671331
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lupia, A., & McCubbins, M. (1998). The Democratic Dilemma: Can Citizens Learn What They Need to Know? (pp. 300). Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Marwick, A., & Lewis, R. (2017). Media manipulation and disinformation online. Data & Society Research Institute. https://datasociety.net/output/media-manipulation-and-disinfo-online/
   Google Scholar
• Nechushtai, E. (2018). From liberal to polarized liberal? Contemporary U.S. News in Hallin and Mancini’s typology of news systems. The International Journal of Press/politics, 23(2), 183–201. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161218771902
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newman, N., & Fletcher, R. (2017). Bias, bullshit and lies: audience perspectives on low trust in the media. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3173579
   Google Scholar
• Nielsen, R. K., & Graves, L. (2017). “News You Don’t Believe”: Audience perspectives on fake news. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism.
   Google Scholar
• Pillai, R. M., & Fazio, L. K. (2021). The effects of repeating false and misleading information on belief. WIREs Cognitive Science, 12(6), article e1573. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1573
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prochazka, F., & Schweiger, W. (2018). How to measure generalized trust in news media? An adaptation and test of scales. Communication Methods and Measures, 13(1), 26–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2018.1506021
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rainie, L., Anderson, J., & Albright, J. (2017). The future of free speech, trolls, anonymity and fake news online. Internet, Science & Tech. http://www.pewinternet.org/2017/03/29/the-future-of-free-speech-trolls-anonymity-and-fake- news-online/
   Google Scholar
• Rapp, D. N. (2008). How do readers handle incorrect information during reading? Memory & Cognition, 36(3), 688–701. https://doi.org/10.3758/MC.36.3.688
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapp, D. N., & Salovich, N. A. (2018). Can’t we just disregard fake news? The consequences of exposure to inaccurate information. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 5(2), 232–239. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732218785193
   Google Scholar
• Rekker, R. (2021). The nature and origins of political polarization over science. Public Understanding of Science, 30(4), 352–368. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662521989193
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg, S. W. (2020). Democracy devouring itself: The rise of the incompetent citizen and the appeal of right-wing populism. In D. U. Hur & J. M. Sabucedo (Eds.), Psychology of political and everyday extremisms.
   Google Scholar
• Ross, A. S., & Rivers, D. J. (2018). Discursive Deflection: Accusation of “Fake News” and the spread of mis- and disinformation in the tweets of president trump. Social Media + Society, 4(2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305118776010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulz, A., Müller, P., Schemer, C., Wirz, D. S., Wettstein, M., & Wirth, W. (2018). Measuring populist attitudes on three dimensions. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 30(2), 316–326. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edw037
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seymour-Ure, C. (1974). The political impact of mass media. Constable.
   Google Scholar
• Strömbäck, J., Tsfati, Y., Boomgaarden, H., Damstra, A., Lindgren, E., Vliegenthardt, R., & Lindholm, T. (2020). News media trust and its impact on media use: A framework for future research. Annals of the International Communication Association, 44(2), 139–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2020.1755338
   Google Scholar
• Stroud, N. J., & Lee, J. K. (2013). Perceptions of cable news credibility. Mass Communication & Society, 16(1), 67–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2011.646449
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorson, E. (2016). Belief echoes: The persistent effects of corrected misinformation. Political Communication, 33(3), 460–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2015.1102187
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsfati, Y., Strömbäck, J., Lindgren, E., Boomgaarden, H. G., & Vliegenthart, R. (2023). What news outlets do people have in mind when they answer survey questions about trust in “media?”. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 35(2). https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edad008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsfati, Y., Strömbäck, J., Lindgren, E., Damstra, A., Boomgaarden, H. G., & Vliegenthart, R. (2022). Going beyond general media trust: An analysis of topical media trust, its antecedents and effects on issue (Mis)perceptions. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 34(2). https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edac010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van De Walle, S., & Six, F. (2014). Trust and distrust as distinct concepts: Why studying distrust in institutions is important. Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice, 16(2), 158–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/13876988.2013.785146
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Doorn, M. (2023). Advancing the debate on the consequences of misinformation: Clarifying why it’s not (just) about false beliefs. Inquiry: A Journal of Medical Care Organization, Provision and Financing, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020174X.2023.2289137
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vecchione, M., Caprara, G. V., Caprara, M. G., Alessandri, G., Tabernero, C., & González-Castro, J. L. (2014). The Perceived Political Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form (PPSE-S): A validation study in three Mediterranean countries. Cross-Cultural Research, 48(4), 368–384. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069397114523924
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wessler, H., & Rinke, E. M. (2014). Deliberative performance of television news in three types of democracy: Insights from the United States, Germany, and Russia. Journal of Communication, 64(5), 827–851. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12115
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yale, R. N., Jensen, J. D., Carcioppolo, N., Sun, Y., & Liu, M. (2015). Examining first- and second-order factor structures for news credibility. Communication Methods and Measures, 9(3), 152–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2015.1061652
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar