Emotion regulation strategies as mediators of the association between level of attachment security and PTSD symptoms following trauma in adulthood

References

• American Psychiatric Association . 2004 . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fourth edition, text revised . Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Ainsworth , M.D.S. , Blehar , M.C. , Waters , E. and Wall , S. 1978 . Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation , Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Baron , R.M. and Kenny , D.A. 1986 . The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 51 ( 6 ) : 1173 – 1182 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartholomew , K. and Horowitz , L.M. 1991 . Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 61 : 226 – 244 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Béliveau , M-J. and Moss , E. 2005 . Validation du projectif de l'attachement adulte (AAP); Contribution aux validités convergente et divergente du projectif de l'attachement adulte . Revue internationale de l'éducation familiale , 9 ( 1 ) : 29 – 50 .
   Google Scholar
• Bowlby , J. 1980 . Attachment and loss, Loss, vol.3: Sadness and depression , New York : Basic Books .
   Google Scholar
• Brunet , A . 2000 . Substance Use Questionnaire (SUBS) . Unpublished document . Douglas Hospital Research Center .
   Google Scholar
• Brunet , A. , Ruzek , J. Cordova , M . 2002 . Evaluation of a brief and early intervention following a critical incident. Research project funded by the Conseil Québécois de la recherche sociale (CQRS) .
   Google Scholar
• Brunet , A. , St-Hilaire , A. , Jehel , L. and King , S. 2003 . Validation of a french version of the impact of event scale-revised . Canadian Journal of Psychiatry , 48 ( 1 ) : 55 – 60 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant , R.A. and Panasetis , P. 2001 . Panic symptoms during trauma and acute stress disorder . Behaviour Research & Therapy , 39 : 961 – 966 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlson , E.A. and Sroufe , L.A. 1995 . “ The contribution of attachment theory to developmental psychopathology ” . In Developmental processes and psychopathology: Vol. 1. Theoritical perspectives and methodological approaches , Edited by: Cicchetti , D. and Cohen , D. 581 – 617 . New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Carlson , E.B. and Rosser-Hogan , R. 1991 . Trauma experiences, posttraumatic stress, dissociation, and depression in Cambodian refugees . American Journal of Psychiatry , 148 : 1548 – 1551 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caspers , K.M. , Cadoret , R.J. , Langbehn , D. , Yucuis , R. and Troutman , B. 2005 . Contributions of attachment style and perceived social support to lifetime use of illicit substances . Addictive Behaviors , 30 : 1007 – 1011 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cole-Detke , H. and Kobak , R. 1996 . Attachment processes in eating disorders and depression . Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology , 64 ( 2 ) : 289 – 290 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowell , J.A. and Treboux , D. 1995 . A review of adult attachment measures: Implications for theory and research . Social Development , 4 : 294 – 327 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Declercq , F. and Willemsen , J. 2006 . Distress and post-traumatic stress disorders in high risk professionals: Adult attachment style and the dimensions of anxiety and avoidance . Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy , 13 : 256 – 263 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dieperink , M. , Leskela , J. , Thuras , P. and Engdahl , B. 2001 . Attachment style classification and posttraumatic stress disorder in former prisoners of war . American Journal or Orthopsychiatry , 71 ( 3 ) : 374 – 378 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dozier , M. and Kobak , R.R. 1992 . Psychophysiology in attachment interviews: Converging evidence for deactivating strategies . Child Development , 63 : 1473 – 1480 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dozier , M. and Lee , S.W. 1995 . Discrepancies between self- and other-report of psychiatric symptomatology: Effects of dismissing attachment strategies . Development and Psychopathology , 7 : 217 – 226 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlers , A. and Clark , D.M. 2000 . A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder . Behaviour Research & Therapy , 38 : 319 – 345 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Endler , N.S. and Parker , J.D.A. 1994 . Assessment of multidimensional coping: Task, emotion, and avoidance strategies . Psychological Assessment , 6 ( 1 ) : 50 – 60 .
   Google Scholar
• Fitzpatrick , M.A. , Fey , J. , Segrin , C. and Schiff , J.L. 1993 . Internal working models of relationships and marital communication . Journal of Language and Social Psychology , 12 ( 1–2 ) : 103 – 131 .
   Google Scholar
• Folkman , S. and Lazarus , R.S. 1988 . Manual for the ways of coping questionnaire , Palo Alto, CA : Consulting Psychologists Press .
   Google Scholar
• Fonagy , P. , Gergely , G. , Jurist , E.L. and Target , M. 2002 . Affect regulation, mentalization, and the development of the self , New York : Other Press .
   Google Scholar
• Fonagy , P. , Leigh , T. , Steele , M. , Steele , H. , Kennedy , R. Mattoon , G. 1996 . The relation of attachment status, psychiatric classification, and response to psychotherapy . Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology , 64 : 22 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fraley , R.C. , Farrazi , D.A. , Bonanno , G.A. and Dekel , S. 2006 . Attachment and psychological adaptation in high exposure survivors of the September 11th attack on the world trade center . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 32 : 538 – 550 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• George , C. , Kaplan , N. Main , M . 1985 . Adult Attachment Interview . Unpublished manuscript . University of California at Berkeley .
   Google Scholar
• George , C. , West , M. Pettem , O . 1997 . Adult attachment projective: Protocol and classification scoring system . Unpublished manuscript , Mills College , California .
   Google Scholar
• George , C. and West , M. 2001 . The development and preliminary validation of new measure of adult attachment: The Adult Attachment Projective . Attachment and Human Development , 3 ( 1 ) : 30 – 61 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• George , C. , West , M. Pettem , O . 1997 . Adult attachment projective: Protocol and classification scoring system . Unpublished manuscript , CA : Mills College .
   Google Scholar
• Golder , S. , Gillmore , M.R. , Spieker , S. and Morrison , D. 2005 . Substance use, related problem behaviors and adult attachment in a sample of high risk older adolescent women . Journal of Child and Family Studies , 14 ( 2 ) : 181 – 193 .
   Google Scholar
• Grice , P. 1975 . “ Logic and conversation ” . In Syntax and semantics: Vol. 3. Speech acts , Edited by: Cole , P. and Moran , J.L. 41 – 58 . New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Half , W.L. and Slade , A. 1989 . Affect attunement and maternal attachment: A pilot study . Infant Mental Health Journal , 10 ( 3 ) : 157 – 172 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton , C. 2000 . Continuity and discontinuity of attachment from infancy through adolescence . Child Development , 71 : 690 – 694 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horowitz , M.J. 1986 . Stress response syndromes: A review of posttraumatic and adjustment disorders . Hospital and Community Psychiatry , 37 ( 3 ) : 241 – 249 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jacobvitz , D. , Curran , M. and Moller , N. 2002 . Measurement of adult attachment: The place of self-report and interview methodologies . Attachment and Human Development , 4 : 207 – 215 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kanninen , K. , Punamaki , R.L. and Qouta , S. 2003 . Personality and trauma: Adult attachment and posttraumatic distress among former political prisoners . Journal of Peace Psychology , 9 ( 2 ) : 97 – 126 .
   Google Scholar
• Kobak , R. , Cassidy , J. and Zir . 2004 . “ Attachment-related trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: Implications for adult adaptation ” . In Adult attachment: Theory, research, and clinical implications , Edited by: Rholes , W.S. and Simpson , J.A. 388 – 407 . New York : The Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kring , A.M. , Smith , D.A. and Neale , J.M. 1994 . Individual differences in dispositional expressiveness: Development and validation of the emotional expressivity scale . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 66 ( 5 ) : 934 – 949 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lussier , Y. 1999 . Version française du coping inventory for stressful situations , Toronto, ON : Multi-Health Systems (MHS) .
   Google Scholar
• Lutgendorf , S.K. and Antoni , M.H. 1999 . Emotional and cognitive processing in a trauma disclosure paradigm . Cognitive Therapy and Research , 23 ( 4 ) : 423 – 440 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Main , M. 1991 . “ Metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive monitoring, and singular (coherent) vs. multiple (incoherent) models of attachment: Findings and directions for future research ” . In Attachment across the life cycle , Edited by: Parkes , C.M. , Stevenson-Hinde , J. and Marris , P. 127 – 159 . London : Tavistock/Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Main , M. and Solomon , J. 1990 . “ Procedures for identifying infants as disorganized/disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation ” . In Attachment in the preschool years , Edited by: Greenberg , M.T. , Cicchetti , D. and Cummings , E.M. 121 – 160 . Chicago, , UK : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Marmar , C.R. , Weiss , D.S. , Schlenger , W.E. , Fairbank , J.A. , Jordan , B.K. Kulka , R.A. 1994 . Peritraumatic dissociation and posttraumatic stress in male vietnam theater veterans . American Journal of Psychiatry , 151 ( 6 ) : 902 – 907 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarlane , A.C. and Yehuda , R.A. 1996 . “ Resilience, vulnerability, and the course of posttraumatic reactions ” . In Traumatic stress: The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society , Edited by: Kolk , B.A.V.D. , Farlane , A.C.M. and Weisaeth , L. 155 – 181 . New York : The Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mikulincer , M. and Florian , V. 1995 . Appraisal of and coping with a real-life stressful situation: The contribution of attachment styles . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 21 ( 4 ) : 406 – 414 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikulincer , M. , Florian , V. and Weller , A. 1993 . Attachment styles, coping strategies, and posttraumatic psychological distress: The impact of the Gulf War in Israel . Journal of Personality & Social Psychology , 64 ( 5 ) : 817 – 826 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikulincer , M. and Orbach , I. 1995 . Attachment styles and repressive defensiveness: The accessibility and architecture of affective memories . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 68 ( 5 ) : 917 – 925 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moss , E. , Cyr , C. , Bureau , J.F. , Tarabusky , G. and Dubois-comtois , K. 2005 . Stability of attachment during the preschool period . Developmental Psychology , 41 ( 5 ) : 773 – 783 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naatanen , P. , Kanninen , K. , Qouta , S. and Punamaki , R.L. 2002 . Trauma-related emotional patterns and their association with post-traumatic and somatic symptoms. Anxiety . Stress and Coping , 15 : 75 – 94 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfefferbaum , B. and Doughty , D.E. 2001 . Increase alcohol use in a treatment sample of Oklahoma City Bombing victims . Psychiatry , 64 : 296 – 303 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Priel , B. and Shamai , D. 1995 . Attachment style and perceived social support: Effects on affect regulation . Personality and Individual Differences , 19 ( 2 ) : 235 – 241 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radecki-Bush , C. , Farrel , A.D. and Bush , J.P. 1993 . Predicting jealous responses: The influence of adult attachment and depression on threat appraisal . Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 10 : 569 – 588 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roisman , G.I. , Tsai , J.L. and Chiang , K.S. 2004 . The emotional integration of childhood experience: Physiological, facial, expressive, and self-reported emotional response during the adult attachment interview . Developmental Psychology , 40 ( 5 ) : 776 – 789 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schore , A.N. 2001 . The effects of early relational trauma on right brain development, effect regulation, and infant mental health . Infant Mental Health Journal , 22 ( 1–2 ) : 201 – 269 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schore , A.N. 2002 . Dysregulation of the right brain: A fundamental mechanism of traumatic attachment and the psychopathogenesis of posttraumatic stress disorder . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , 39 : 9 – 30 .
   Google Scholar
• Shaver , P.R. Mikulincer , M. 2002 . Attachment-related psychodynamics . Attachment and Human Development, 4 (Special Issue: The psychodynamics of adult attachments – Bridging the gap between disparate research traditions) , 133 161 .
   Google Scholar
• Shaver , P.R. and Mikulincer , M. 2004 . “ What do self-report attachment measures assess? ” . In Adult attachment , Edited by: Rholes , W.S. and Simpson , J.A. 17 – 54 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Solomon , Z. , Ginzburg , K. , Mikulincer , M. , Neria , Y. and Ohry , A. 1998 . Coping with war captivity: The role of attachment style . European Journal of Personality , 12 : 272 – 285 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon , Z. , Mikulincer , M. and Arad , R. 1991 . Monitoring and blunting: Implications for combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 4 ( 2 ) : 209 – 221 .
   Google Scholar
• Sroufe , L.A. , Carlson , E.A. , Levy , A.K. and Egeland , B. 1999 . Implications of attachment theory for developmental psychopathology . Development and Psychopathology , 11 : 1 – 13 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stovall-McClough , K.C. and Cloitre , M. 2006 . Unresolved attachment, PTSD, and dissociation in women with childhood abuse histories . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 74 ( 2 ) : 219 – 228 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson , R.A. 1994 . Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition . Monographs of the society for research in child development , 59 ( 2–3 ) : 25 – 52 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van IJzendoorn , M.H. and Bakermans-Kranenburg , M.J. 1996 . Attachment representations in mothers, fathers, adolescents, and clinical groups: A meta-analytic search for normative data . Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology , 64 ( 1 ) : 8 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vlahov , D. , Galea , S. , Ahern , J. , Resnick , H. and Kilpatrick , D. 2004 . Sustained increased consumption of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana among Manhattan residents after September 11, 2001 . American Journal of Public Health , 94 ( 2 ) : 253 – 254 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watt , M.C. , McWilliams , L.A. and Campbell , A.G. 2005 . Relations between anxiety sensitivity and attachment style dimensions . Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment , 27 ( 3 ) : 191 – 200 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss , D.S. and Marmar , C.R. 1997 . “ The impact of event scale-revised ” . In Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD: A practitioner's handbook , Edited by: Wilson , J.P. and Keane , T.M. 399 – 411 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• West , M. and George , C. 2002 . Attachment and dysthymia: The contributions of preoccupied attachment and agency of self to depression in women . Attachment and Human Development , 4 : 278 – 293 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yehuda , R. 2002 . Post-traumatic stress disorder . The New England Journal of Medicine , 346 : 108 – 114 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yehuda , R. 2004 . Risk and resilience in posttraumatic stress disorder . Journal of Clinical Psychiatry , 65 : 29 – 36 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zakin , G. , Solomon , Z. and Neria , Y. 2003 . Hardiness, attachment style, and long term psychological distress among Israeli POWs and combat veterans . Personality and Individual differences , 34 : 819 – 829 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmerman , P. 1999 . Structure and functions of internal working models of attachment and their role for emotion regulation . Attachment and Human Development , 1 ( 3 ) : 291 – 306 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zulueta , F. 2006 . The treatment of psychological trauma from the perspective of attachment research . Journal of Family Therapy , 28 : 334 – 351 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar