Attentional biases to threat in social anxiety disorder: time to focus our attention elsewhere?

References

• Amir, N., Beard, C., Taylor, C. T., Klumpp, H., Elias, J., Burns, M., & Chen, X. (2009). Attention training in individuals with generalized social phobia: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77, 961–973. doi:10.1037/a0016685
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amir, N., Elias, J., Klumpp, H., & Przeworski, A. (2003). Attentional bias to threat in social phobia: Facilitated processing of threat or difficulty disengaging attention from threat? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 1325–1335. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00039-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amir, I., Zvielli, A., & Bernstein, A. (2016). (De)coupling of our eyes and our mind’s eye: A dynamic process perspective on attentional bias. Emotion, 16, 978–986. doi: 10.1037/emo0000172
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker, S. L., Heinrichs, N., Kim, H. J., & Hofmann, S. G. (2002). The Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale as a self-report instrument: A preliminary psychometric analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 701–715. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00060-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 1–24. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, A., Steer, R., & Brown, G. (1993). Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). doi:10.1037/t00742-000
   Google Scholar
• Berggren, N., Koster, E. H. W., & Derakshan, N. (2012). The effect of cognitive load in emotional attention and trait anxiety: An eye movement study. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 24, 79–91. doi:10.1080/20445911.2011.618450
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckner, J. D., Maner, J. K., & Schmidt, N. B. (2010). Difficulty disengaging attention from social threat in social anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 34, 99–105. doi:10.1007/s10608-008-9205-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cisler, J. M., & Koster, E. H. W. (2010). Mechanisms of attentional biases towards threat in anxiety disorders: An integrative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 203–216. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, D. M. (2001). A cognitive perspective on social phobia. The Essential Handbook of Social Anxiety for Clinicians, 42, 193–218. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(97)87445-8
   Google Scholar
• Clark, D. M ., & Wells, A. (1995). A cognitive model of social phobia. In R. Heimberg, M. Liebowitz, D. Hope, & R. Schneier (Eds.), Social Phobia: Diagnosis, assessment and treatment (pp. 69–93). New York: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Clarke, P.J. F., MacLeod, C., & Guastella, A. J. (2013). Assessing the role of spatial engagement and disengagement of attention in anxiety-linked attentional bias: A critique of current paradigms and suggestions for future research directions. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 26, 1–19. doi: 10.1080/10615806.2011.638054
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cristea, I. A., Kok, R. N., & Cuijpers, P. (2015). Efficacy of cognitive bias modification interventions in anxiety and depression: Meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 206, 7–16. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.114.146761
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derakshan, N., & Eysenck, M. W. (2009). Anxiety, processing efficiency, and cognitive performance. European Psychologist, 14, 168–176. doi:10.1027/1016-9040.14.2.168
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eastwood, J., Smile, D., Oakman, J., Farvolden, P., van Ameringen, M., Mancini, C., & Merikle, P. (2005). Individuals with social phobia are biased to become aware of negative faces. Visual Cognition, 12, 159–179. doi:10.1080/13506280444000175
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eysenck, M. W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R., & Calvo, M. G. (2007). Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory. Emotion, 7, 336–353. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• First, M. B., & Gibbon, M. (2004). The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID-I) and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II Disorders (SCID-II). Comprised Handbook of Psychological Assessment.
   Google Scholar
• Fresco, D. M., Coles, M. E., Heimberg, R. G., Liebowitz, M. R., Hami, S., Stein, M. B., & Goetz, D. (2001). The Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale: A comparison of the psychometric properties of self-report and clinician-administered formats. Psychological Medicine, 31, 1025–1035. doi:10.1017/S0033291701004056
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gamble, A. L., & Rapee, R. M. (2010). The time-course of attention to emotional faces in social phobia. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 41, 39–44. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2009.08.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garner, M., Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2006). Orienting and maintenance of gaze to facial expressions in social anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 760–770. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.115.4.760
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilboa-Schechtman, E., Foa, E. B., & Amir, N. (1999). Attentional biases for facial expressions in social phobia: The face-in-the-crowd paradigm. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 305–318. doi:10.1080/026999399379294
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hautzinger, M., Keller, F., & Kühner, C. (2006). Beck Depressions-Inventar (BDI-II). Frankfurt: Harcourt Test Services.
   Google Scholar
• Heeren, A., Maurage, P., & Philippot, P. (2015). Revisiting attentional processing of non-emotional cues in social anxiety: A specific impairment for the orienting network of attention. Psychiatry Research, 228, 136–142. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2015.04.030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heeren, A., Mogoase, C., Philippot, P., & McNally, R. J. (2015). Attention bias modification for social anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 40, 76–90. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.06.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heimberg, R. G., Brozovich, F. A., & Rapee, R. M. (2010). A cognitive behavioral model of social anxiety disorder: Update and extension. San Diego, CA: Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Juth, P., Lundqvist, D., Karlsson, A., Ohman, A., & Öhman, A. (2005). Looking for foes and friends: Perceptual and emotional factors when finding a face in the crowd. Emotion, 5, 379–395. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.4.379
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kappenman, E. S., Farrens, J. L., Luck, S. J., & Proudfit, G. H. (2014). Behavioral and ERP measures of attentional bias to threat in the dot-probe task: Poor reliability and lack of correlation with anxiety. Frontiers in Psychology, 5. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01368
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kendall, P., Finch, Jr., A., Auerbach, S., Stephen, M., Hooke, J. F., & Milkulka, P. J. (1976). The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory: A systematic evaluation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 44, 406–412. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.44.3.406
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knye, M., Roth, N., Westhus, W., & Heine, A. (2003). Continuous performance test. Göttingen: Hogrefe.
   Google Scholar
• Kowler, E., Anderson, E., Dosher, B., & Blaser, E. (1995). The role of attention in the programming of saccades. Vision Research, 35, 1897–1916. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(94)00279-U
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kühner, C., Bürger, C., Keller, F., & Hautzinger, M. (2007). Reliabilität und Validität des revidierten Beck-Depressionsinventars (BDI-II)[Reliability and validity of the revised Beck Depression Inventory]. Der Nervenarzt, 78, 651–656. doi:10.1007/s00115-006-2098-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langner, O., Dotsch, R., Bijlstra, G., Wigboldus, D. H. J., Hawk, S. T., & van Knippenberg, A. (2010). Presentation and validation of the Radboud Faces Database. Cognition & Emotion, 24, 1377–1388. doi:10.1080/02699930903485076
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laux, L., Glanzmann, P., Schaffner, P., & Spielberger, C. D. (1981). Das State-Trait-Anxiety-Inventory (STAI). Weinheim: Beltz.
   Google Scholar
• Leber, S., Heidenreich, T., Stangier, U., & Hofmann, S.G. (2009). Processing of facial affect under social threat in socially anxious adults: Mood matters. Depression and Anxiety, 26, 196–206. doi: 10.1002/da.20525
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeMoult, J., & Joormann, J. (2012). Attention and memory biases in social anxiety disorder: The role of comorbid depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 36, 47–57. doi:10.1007/s10608-010-9322-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liebowitz, M. R. (1987). Social phobia. Modern Problems of Pharmacopsychiatry, 22, 141–173. doi: 10.1159/000414022
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lobbestael, J., Leurgans, M., & Arntz, A. (2011). Inter-rater reliability of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID I) and Axis II Disorders (SCID II). Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 18, 75–79. doi: 10.1002/cpp.693
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mansell, W., & Clark, D. M. (1999). How do I appear to others? Social anxiety and processing of the observable self. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 419–434. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00148-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mansell, W., Clark, D. M., Ehlers, A., & Chen, Y.-P. (1999). Social anxiety and attention away from emotional faces. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 673–690. doi: 10.1080/026999399379032
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2002). Selective orienting of attention to masked threat faces in social anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 1403–1414. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00017-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogg, K., Bradley, B., Miles, F., & Dixon, R. (2004). Brief report time course of attentional bias for threat scenes: Testing the vigilance-avoidance hypothesis. Cognition & Emotion, 18, 689–700. doi:10.1080/02699930341000158
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogg, K., Millar, N., & Bradley, B. P. (2000). Biases in eye movements to threatening facial expressions in generalized anxiety disorder and depressive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 695–704. doi:10.1037//0021-843X doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.109.4.695
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogg, K., Philippot, P., & Bradley, B. P. (2004). Selective attention to angry faces in clinical social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 160–165. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.113.1.160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quigley, L., Nelson, A. L., Carriere, J., Smilek, D., & Purdon, C. (2012). The effects of trait and state anxiety on attention to emotional images: An eye-tracking study. Cognition & Emotion, 26, 1–22. doi:10.1080/02699931.2012.662892
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapee, R. M., & Heimberg, R. G. (1997). A cognitive-behavioral model of anxiety in social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 741–756. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00022-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R Core Team. (2009). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
   Google Scholar
• Rinck, M., Becker, E. S., Kellermann, J., & Roth, W. T. (2003). Selective attention in anxiety: Distraction and enhancement in visual search. Depression and Anxiety, 18, 18–28. doi:10.1002/da.10105
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmukle, S. C. (2005). Unreliability of the dot probe task. European Journal of Personality, 19, 595–605. doi:10.1002/per.554
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schofield, C. A., Johnson, A. L., Inhoff, A. W., & Coles, M. E. (2012). Social anxiety and difficulty disengaging threat: Evidence from eye-tracking. Cognition & Emotion, 26, 300–311. doi:10.1080/02699931.2011.602050
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SensoMotoric Instruments. (2015). BeGaze: Manual version 3.5. Teltow, Germany: SMI.
   Google Scholar
• Singh, J. S., Capozzoli, M. C., Dodd, M. D., & Hope, D. A. (2015). The effects of social anxiety and state anxiety on visual attention: Testing the vigilance avoidance hypothesis. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 44, 377–388. doi:10.1080/16506073.2015.1016447
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spielberger, C., Gorsuch, R., & Lushene, R. (1970). Test manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
   Google Scholar
• Stagner, R. (1977). On the reality and relevance of traits. The Journal of General Psychology, 96, 185–207. doi:10.1080/00221309.1977.9920815
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stangier, U., & Heidenreich, T. (2005). Liebowitz Soziale Angst-Skala (LSAS) [Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale]. In Collegium Internationale Psychiatriae Scalarum (Ed.), Internationale Skalen für Psychiatrie (pp. 299–305). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
   Google Scholar
• Staugaard, S. R. (2009). Reliability of two versions of the dot-probe task using photographic faces. Psychology Science Quarterly, 51, 339–350.
   Google Scholar
• Stopa, L., & Clark, D. M. (2000). Social phobia and interpretation of social events. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 273–283. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00043-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waters, A., Mogg, K., Bradley, B., & Pine, D. (2011). Attention bias for angry faces in children with social phobia. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 2, 475–489. doi:10.5127/je8111p.01 doi: 10.5127/jep.018111
   Google Scholar
• Wermes, R., Lincoln, T. M., & Helbig-Lang, S. (2017). How well can we measure visual attention? Psychometric properties of manual response times and first fixation latencies in a visual search paradigm. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 41, 588–599. doi:10.1007/s10608-016-9830-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wittchen, H.-U., Zaudig, M., & Fydrich, T. H. (1997). SKID – Strukturiertes Klinisches Interview für DSM-IV. Achse I und II Handanweisungen [Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV]. Göttingen: Hogrefe. doi:10.1026//0084-5345.28.1.68
   Google Scholar
• Wong, Q. J. J., & Rapee, R. M. (2016). The aetiology and maintenance of social anxiety disorder: A synthesis of complimentary theoretical models and formulation of a new integrated model. Journal of Affective Disorders, 203, 84–100. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2016.05.069
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zanarini, M. C., Skodol, A. E., Bender, D., Dolan, R., Sanislow, C., Schaefer, E., & Gundersono, J. G. (2000). The collaborative longitudinal personality disorders study: Reliability of axis I and II diagnoses. Journal of Personality Disorders, 14, 291–299. doi:10.1521/pedi.2000.14.4.291
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar