Why Do Only a Minority of Men Report Severe Levels of Eating Disorder Symptomatology, When so Many Report Substantial Body Dissatisfaction? Examination of Exacerbating Factors

REFERENCES

• Abbate-Daga, G., Gramaglia, C., Amianto, F., Marzola, E., & Fassino, S. (2010). Attachment insecurity, personality, and body dissatisfaction in eating disorders. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 198, 520–524.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agras, W. S. (2010). The Oxford handbook of eating disorders. New York, NY: Oxford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brannan, M. E., & Petrie, T. A. (2011). Psychological well-being and the body dissatisfaction–bulimic symptomatology relationship: An examination of moderators. Eating Behaviors, 12, 233–241.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calogero, R. M. (2009). Objectification processes and disordered eating in British women and men. Journal of Health Psychology, 14, 394–403.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cash, T. F., Theriault, J., & Annis, N. M. (2004). Body Image in an interpersonal context: Adult attachment, fear of intimacy, and social anxiety. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 89–103.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohn, L., & Lemberg, R. (2013) Current findings on males with eating disorders. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Conti, L. (1999). Repertorio delle scale di valutazione in psichiatria [Collection of psychiatric scales]. Firenze, Italy: Società Editrice Europea.
   Google Scholar
• Dakanalis, A., Clerici, M., Caslini, M., Favagrossa, L., Prunas, A., Volpato, C., … Zanetti, M. A. (2014a). Internalization of sociocultural standards of beauty and disordered eating behaviors: The role of body surveillance, shame, and social anxiety. Italian Journal of Psychopathology, 20(1), 33–37.
   Google Scholar
• Dakanalis, A., Di Mattei, V. E., Pagani Bagliacca, E., Prunas, A., Sarno, L., Riva, G., & Zanetti, M. A. (2012a). Disordered eating behaviors among Italian men: Objectifying media and sexual orientation differences. Eating Disorders, 20, 356–367. doi:10.1080/10640266.2012.715514
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dakanalis, A., Di Mattei, V. E., Prunas, A., Riva, G., Sarno, L., Volpato, C., & Zanetti, M. A. (2012b). The objectified body: Media, psychophysical well-being and gender differences. Psicologia Sociale, 2, 259–282. doi:10.1482/37698
   Google Scholar
• Dakanalis, A., Favagrossa, L., Clerici, M., Prunas, A., Colmegna, F., Zanetti, M. A., & Riva, G. (2014b). Body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptomatology: A latent structural equation modeling analysis of moderating variables in 18- to 28-year-old males. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/00223980.2013.842141
   Google Scholar
• Dakanalis, A., & Riva, G. (2013). Current considerations for eating and body-related disorders among men. In L. B. Sams & J. A. Keels (Eds.), Body image: Gender differences, sociocultural influences and health implications (pp. 195–216). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Dakanalis, A., Timko, A. C., Madeddu, F., Volpato, C., Clerici, M., Riva, G., & Zanetti, A. (2013a). Are the Male Body Dissatisfaction and Drive for Muscularity scales reliable and valid instruments? Journal of Health Psychology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/1359105313498108
   Google Scholar
• Dakanalis, A., Timko, C. A., Riva, G., Madeddu, F., Clerici, M., & Zanetti, M. A. (2014c). A comprehensive examination of the transdiagnostic cognitive behavioral model of eating disorders in males. Eating Behaviors, 15, 63–67. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.10.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dakanalis, A., Timko, C. A., Zanetti, M. A., Rinaldi, L., Prunas, A., Carrà, G., … Clerici, M. (2014d). Attachment insecurities, maladaptive perfectionism, and eating disorder symptoms: A latent mediated and moderated structural equation modeling analysis across diagnostic groups. Psychiatry Research, 215, 176–184. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.10.039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dakanalis, A., Zanetti, M. A., Clerici, M., Madeddu, F., Riva, G., & Caccialanza, R. (2013b). Italian version of the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire. Psychometric proprieties and measurement invariance across sex, BMI-status and age. Appetite, 71, 187–195. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2013.08.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dakanalis, A., Zanetti, M. A., Riva, G., & Clerici, M. (2013c). Psychosocial moderators of the relationship between body dissatisfaction and symptoms of eating disorders: A look at a sample of young Italian women. Revue Europeene de Psychologie Appliquee, 63, 323–334. doi:10.1016/j.erap.2013.08.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daniel, S., & Bridges, S. K. (2010). The drive for muscularity in men: Media influences and objectification theory. Body Image, 7, 32–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fossati, A., Feeney, J. A., Donati, D., Donini, M., Novella, L., Bagnato, M., … Maffei, C. (2003). On the dimensionality of the attachment style questionnaire in Italian clinical and nonclinical participants. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 20, 55–79.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frazier, P. A., Tix, A. P., & Barron, K. E. (2004). Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 115–134.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garner, D. M. (1995). Eating Disorder Inventory-II. Firenze, Italy: Organizzazioni Speciali.
   Google Scholar
• Gosling, S. D., Vazire, S., Srivastava, S., & John, O. P. (2004). Should we trust web-based studies? A comparative analysis of six preconceptions about Internet questionnaires. American Psychologist, 59, 93–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinrichsen, H., Waller, G., & van Gerko, K. (2004). Social anxiety and agoraphobia in the eating disorders: Associations with eating attitudes and behaviors. Eating Behaviors, 5, 285–290.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Juarascio, A. S., Perone, J., & Timko, C. A. (2011). Moderators of the relationship between body image dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Eating Disorders, 19, 346–534.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Julal, F. S., & Martin, L. V. (2010, April). Her body in her relationship: Women’s attachment anxiety, body surveillance and body esteem. Poster presented at the 2010 British Psychological Society Annual Conference, Winchester, UK. Retrieved from http://abstracts.bps.org.uk/index.cfm?&ResultsType=Abstracts&ConferenceID=5526
   Google Scholar
• McKinley, N. M., & Randa, L. A. (2005). Adult attachment and body satisfaction: An exploration of general and specific relationship differences. Body Image, 2, 209–218.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Peat, C. M., & Muehlenkamp, J. J. (2011). Self-objectification, disordered eating, and depression: A test of mediational pathways. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 441–450.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reas, D. L., Øverås, M., & Rø, O. (2012). Norms for the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) among high school and university men. Eating Disorders, 20, 437–443.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riva, G., Gaggioli, A., & Dakanalis, A. (2013). From body dissatisfaction to obesity: How virtual reality may improve obesity prevention and treatment in adolescents. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics, 184, 356–362.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Riva, G., Gaudio, S., & Dakanalis, A. (2013). I’m in a virtual body: a locked allocentric memory may impair the experience of the body in both obesity and anorexia nervosa. Eating and Weight Disorders. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s40519-013-0066-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riva, G., Gaudio, S., & Dakanalis, A. (2014). The neuropsychology of self-objectification. European Psychologist. Advance online publication. doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000190
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt, U., & Treasure, J. (2006). Anorexia nervosa: Valued and visible. A cognitive- interpersonal maintenance model and its implications for research and practice. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45, 343–366.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shafran, R., Lee, M., Payne, E., & Fairburn, C. G., (2007). An experimental analysis of body checking. Behavior Research and Therapy, 45, 113–121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanford, S. C., & Lemberg, R. (2012). A clinical comparison of men and women on the Eating Disorder Inventory-3 (EDI-3) and the Eating Disorder Assessment for Men (EDAM). Eating Disorders, 20, 379–394.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stice, E. (2002). Risk and maintenance factors for eating pathology: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 825–848.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stice, E., Shaw, H., & Marti, C. N. (2007). A meta-analytic review of eating disorder prevention programs: Encouraging findings. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3, 233–257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strother, E., Lemberg, R., Stanford, S. C., & Turberville, D. (2012). Eating Disorders in men: Underdiagnosed, undertreated, and misunderstood. Eating Disorders, 20, 346–355.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swinbourne, J., Hunt, C., Abbott, M., Russell, J., St Clare, T., & Touyz, S. (2012). The comorbidity between eating disorders and anxiety disorders: Prevalence in an eating disorder sample and anxiety disorder sample. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 46, 118–131.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
   Google Scholar
• Tiggemann, M. (2013). Objectification Theory: Of relevance for eating disorder researchers and clinicians? Clinical Psychologist 17, 35–45.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiggemann, M., & Kuring, J. K. (2004). The role of body objectification in disordered eating and depressed mood. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 299–311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ty, M., & Francis, A. J. P. (2013). Insecure attachment and disordered eating in women: The mediating processes of social comparison and emotion dysregulation. Eating Disorders, 21, 154–174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tylka, T. L. (2004). The relation between body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptomatology: An analysis of moderating variables. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 178–191.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, D. C., Murray, A. D., Lavender, J. M., & Anderson, D. A. (2012). The direct effects of manipulating body checking in men. Body Image, 9, 462–468.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weltzin, T. E., Cornella-Carlson, T., Fitzpatrick, M. E., Kennington, B., Bean, P., & Jefferies C. (2012). Treatment issues and outcomes for males with eating disorders. Eating Disorders, 20, 444–459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yean, C., Benau, E. M., Dakanalis, A., Hormes, J. M., Perone, J., & Timko, C. A. (2013). The relationship of sex and sexual orientation to self-esteem, body shape satisfaction, and eating disorder symptomatology. Frontiers in Psychology, 4 (art. n.887). doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00887
   Google Scholar
• Zachrisson, H. D., & Skarderud, F. (2010). Feelings of insecurity: Review of attachment and eating disorders. European Eating Disorders Review, 18, 97–106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar