Effect of disinfectants on Giardia cysts

References

• Meyer , E. A. and Jarroll , E. L. 1980 . Giardiasis . J. Epidemiol. , 111 : 1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woo , P. K. 1984 . “ Evidence for animal reservoirs and transmission of Giardia infection between animal species ” . In Giardia and Giardiasis , Edited by: Erlandsen , S. L. and Meyer , E. A. New York : Plenum Press . chap. 20.
   Google Scholar
• Filice , F. 1952 . Studies on the cytology and life history of a Giardia from the laboratory rat . Univ. Calif. Berkeley Publ. Zool. , 57 : 53
   Google Scholar
• Roberts‐Thomson , I. C. , Stevens , D. P. , Mahmoud , A. A. and Warren , K. S. 1976 . Acquired resistance to infection in an animal model of giardiasis . J. Immunol. , 117 : 2036
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer , E. A. and Jarroll , E. L. 1982 . “ Giardiasis ” . In Handbook Series in Zoonoses , Edited by: Jacobs , L. Vol. 1 , 25 Boca Raton, Fla. : CRC Press . Section C,
   Google Scholar
• Wolfe , M. 1984 . “ Symptomatology, diagnosis, and treatment ” . In Giardia and Giardiasis , Edited by: Erlandsen , S. L. and Meyer , E. A. New York : Plenum Press . chap. 9.
   Google Scholar
• Black , R. E. , Dykes , A. C. , Sinclair , S. P. and Wells , J. G. 1977 . Giardiasis in day‐care centers: evidence of person to person transmission . Pediatrics , 60 : 486
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoeli , M. , Most , H. , Hammond , J. and Scheinesson , G. P. 1972 . Parasitic infections in a closed community: results of a 10‐year survey in Willowbrook State School . Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. , 66 : 764
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flores , E. C. , Plumb , S. C. and McNeese , M. C. 1983 . Intestinal parasitosis in an urban pediatric clinic population . Am. J. Dis. Child. , 137 : 754
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thacker , S. B. , Simpson , S. , Gordon , T. J. , Wolfe , M. and Kimball , A. M. 1979 . Parasitic disease control in a residential facility for the mentally retarded . Am. J. Public Health , 69 : 1279
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owen , R. L. , Dritz , S. K. and Wibbelsman , C. J. 1979 . Venereal aspects of gastroenterology . West. J. Med. , 130 : 236
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Huriwitz , A. L. and Owens , R. L. 1978 . Venereal transmission of intestinal parasites . West. J. Med. , 128 : 89
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kean , B. H. , Williams , D. C. and Luminais , S. K. 1979 . Epidemic of amoebiasis and giardiasis in a biased population . Br. J. Vener. Dis. , 55 : 375
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meyers , J. D. , Kuharic , H. A. and Holmes , K. K. 1977 . Giardia lamblia infection in homosexual men . Br. J. Vener. Dis. , 53 : 54
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Owen , R. L. 1984 . “ Direct fecal‐oral transmission of giardiasis ” . In Giardia and Giardiasis , Edited by: Erlandsen , S. L. and Meyer , E. A. New York : Plenum Press . chap. 19.
   Google Scholar
• Dykes , A. C. , Juranek , D. D. , Lorenz , R. A. , Sinclair , S. , Jakubowski , W. and Davies , R. 1980 . Municipal waterbome giardiasis: an epidemiologic investigation. Beavers implicated as a possible reservoir . Ann. Intern. Med. , 92 : 165
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippy , E. C. 1978 . Tracing a giardiasis outbreak at Berlin, New Hampshire . J Am. Water Works Assoc , 70 : 512
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw , P. K. , Brodsky , R. E. , Lyman , D. O. , Wood , B. T. , Hibler , C. P. , Healy , G. R. , MacLeod , K. I. E. , Stahl , W. and Schultz , M. G. 1977 . A communitywide outbreak of giardiasis with evidence of transmission by a municipal water supply . Ann. Intern. Med. , 87 : 426
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craun , G. 1986 . Waterbome giardiasis in the United States 1965–84 . Lancet , 2 (8505) : 513
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mills , R. G. , Bartlett , C. L. and Kessel , J. F. 1925 . The penetration of fruits and vegetables by bacteria and other particulate matter and the resistance of bacteria, protozoan cysts and helminth ova to common disinfection methods . Am. J. Hyg. , 5 : 559
   Google Scholar
• Liu , K. 1928 . The comparative lethal effects of certain chemicals on bacteria and cysts of Entamoeba histolytica from human feces . China Med. J. , 42 : 568
   Google Scholar
• Hoff , J. C. 1978 . “ Disinfection resistance of Giardia cysts: origins of current concepts and research in progress ” . In Waterbome Transmission of Giardiasis , Edited by: Jakubowski , W. and Hoff , J. C. 231 Environmental Protection Agency . 600/9–79–001,
   Google Scholar
• Bingham , A. K. and Meyer , E. A. 1979 . Giardia excystation can be induced in vitro in acidic solutions . Nature (London) , 277 : 301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rice , E. W. and Schaefer , F. W. III . 1981 . Improved in vitro excystation procedure for Giardia lamblia cysts . J Clin. Microbiol. , 14 : 709
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaefer , F. W. , Rice , E. W. and Hoff , J. C. 1984 . Factors promoting in vitro excystation of Giardia muris cysts . Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. , 78 : 795
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bingham , A. K. , Jarroll , E. L. , Meyer , E. A. and Radulescu , S. 1979 . Giardia sp.: physical factors of excystation in vitro, and excystation vs eosin exclusion as determinants of viability . Exp. Parasitol. , 47 : 284
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoff , J. C. , Rice , E. W. and Schaefer , F. W. 1985 . Comparison of animal infectivity and excystation as measures of Giardia muris cyst inactivation by chlorine . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 50 : 1115
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasprzak , W. and Majewska , A. 1983 . Infectivity of Giardia sp. cysts in relation to eosin exclusion and excystation in vitro . Tropenmed. Parasitol. , 34 : 70
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Belosevic , M. , Faubert , G. M. , MacLean , J. D. , Law , C. and Croll , N. A. 1983 . Ciardia lamblia infections in Mongolian gerbils: an animal model . J. Infect. Dis. , 147 : 222
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schupp , D. and Erlandsen , S. 1987 . A new method to determine Giardia cyst viability: correlation of fluorescein diacetate and propidium iodide staining with animal infectivity . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 53 : 704
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson , H. E. 1908 . A note in the variation of the rate of disinfection with change in the concentration of the disinfectant . J. Hyg. , 8 : 536
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoff , J. C. 1986 . Strengths and weaknesses of using C‐t values to evaluate disinfection practice . Water Quality Technology Conf. Presentation (AWWA) . November 1986 , Portland, Ore..
   Google Scholar
• Jarroll , E. L. , Bingham , A. K. and Meyer , E. A. 1981 . Effect of chlorine on Giardia lamblia cyst viability . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 41 : 483
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rice , E. W. , Hoff , J. C. and Schaefer , F. W. III . 1982 . Inactivation of Giardia cysts by chlorine . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 43 : 250
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leahy , G. J. , Rubin , A. J. and Sproul , O. J. 1987 . Inactivation of Giardia muris cysts by free chlorine . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 53 (7) : 1448
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stringer , R. P. and Kruse , C. W. 1971 . Amoebic cysticidal properties of halogens in water . J. Sanit. Eng. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. , 97 : 801
   Google Scholar
• Lippy , E. C. 1986 . Chlorination to prevent and control waterbome diseases . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 78 (1) : 49
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoff , J. C. August 1986 . “ Inactivation of Microbial Agents by Chemical Disinfectants ” . In U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report #600/2–86/067 August ,
   Google Scholar
• Meyer , E. A. , Glicker , J. and Bingham , A. K. Effect of chloramine on Giardia cyst viability, Northwest Branch American Society for Microbiology (Poster) . 43rd Annu. Meet. June . Moscow : University of Idaho .
   Google Scholar
• Rubin , A. J. Factors affecting the inactivation of Giardia cysts by monochloramines and comparison with other disinfectants . Conf. on Current Res. in Drinking Water Treatment (presentation) . March . Cincinnati, Ohio : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and American Water Works Association Research Foundation (sponsors) .
   Google Scholar
• Noss , C. I. and Olivieri , V. P. 1985 . Disinfecting capabilities of oxychlorine compounds . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 50 : 1162
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wickramanayake , G. B. , Rubin , A. J. and Sproul , O. J. 1984 . Inactivation of Giardia lamblia cysts with ozone . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 48 : 671
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wickramanayake , G. B. , Rubin , A. J. and Sproul , O. J. 1984 . Inactivation of Naegleria and Giardia cysts in water by ozonation . J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. , 56 : 983
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farooq , S. 1977 . Basic concepts in disinfection with ozone . J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. , 49 : 1818
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessel , J. F. 1944 . The cysticidal effect of chlorine and ozone on cysts of Entamoeba histolytica . Am. J. Trop. Med. , 24 : 117
   Google Scholar
• Roy , D. 1982 . Comparative inactivation of six enteroviruses by ozone . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 74 : 660
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerba , C. P. and Thurman , R. Towards developing standard procedures for testing microbiological water purifiers . Proc. of the 3rd Conf. on Prog, in Chemical Disinfection . Edited by: Janauer , G. pp. 269 Binghamton, N.Y. : State University of New York at Binghamton .
   Google Scholar
• Wickramanayake , G. B. , Rubin , A. J. and Sproul , O. J. 1985 . Effect of ozone and storage temperature on Giardia cysts . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 77 : 74
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jarroll, E. L., Eyman, C., and Gates, M., unpublished data, 1987.
   Google Scholar
• Jarroll , E. L. , Bingham , A. K. and Meyer , E. A. 1980 . Giardia cyst destruction: effectiveness of six small‐quantity water disinfection methods . Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. , 29 : 8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahn , F. H. and Visscher , B. R. 1975 . Water disinfection in the wilderness — a simple, effective method of iodination . West. J. Med. , 122 : 450
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jarroll , E. L. , Bingham , A. K. and Meyer , E. A. 1980 . Inability of an iodination method to destroy completely Giardia cysts in cold water . West. J. Med. , 132 : 567
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jarroll, E. L., unpublished results.
   Google Scholar
• Marchin , G. L. , Fina , L. R. , Lambert , J. L. and Fina , G. T. 1983 . Effect of resin disinfectants‐I3 and‐I5 on Giardia muris and Giardia lamblia . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 46 : 965
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rice , E. W. and Hoff , J. C. 1981 . Inactivation of Giardia lamblia by ultraviolet irradiation . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 42 : 546
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Division of Environmental Engineering and Food Protection . 1967 . Policy Statement on the Use of Ultraviolet Process for Disinfection of Water , Washington, D.C. : U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare .
   Google Scholar
• Carlson , D. A. , Seabloom , R. , DeWalle , F. , Wetzler , T. , Engeset , J. , Butler , R. , Wangsuphachart , S. and Wang , S. September 1985 . Ultraviolet Disinfection of Water for Small Water Supplies , U. S. E. P. A. Project Summary #600/S2–85/092 September ,
   Google Scholar
• Jarroll , E. L. , Hoff , J. C. and Meyer , E. A. 1984 . “ Resistance of cysts to disinfection agents ” . In Giardia and Giardiasis , Edited by: Erlandsen , S. L. and Meyer , E. A. New York : Plenum Press . chap. 18.
   Google Scholar
• Jarroll, E. L., personal observation.
   Google Scholar
• Rubin, A. J., Leahy, G. J., and Sproul, O. J., unpublished.
   Google Scholar