344
Views
10
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Potential of In Vitro Methods for Mechanistic Studies of Particulate Matter–Induced Cardiopulmonary Toxicity

Pages 1971-2002 | Published online: 29 Sep 2011

REFERENCES

  • Brook , R. D. 2007 . Is air pollution a cause for cardiovascular disease? Updated review and controversials . Rev. Environ. Health. , 22 : 115 – 137 .
  • Brook , R. D. 2007 . Why physicians who treat hypertension should know more about air pollution . J. Clin. Hypertens. , 9 : 629 – 635 .
  • Brook , R. D. 2008 . Cardiovascular effects of air pollution . Clin. Sci. , 115 : 175 – 187 .
  • Boyd , D. R. and Genuis , S. J. 2008 . The environmental burden of disease in Canada: Respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and congenital affliction . Environ. Res. , 106 : 240 – 249 .
  • Kan , H. , Huang , W. , Chen , B. and Zhao , N. 2009 . Impact of outdoor air pollution on cardiovascular health in mainland China . CVD Prev. Contr. , 4 : 61 – 70 .
  • Chen , G. , Song , G. , Jiang , L. , Zhang , Y. , Zhao , N. , Chen , B. and Kan , H. 2008 . Short-term effects of ambient gaseous pollutants and particulate matter on daily mortality in Shanghai, China . J. Occup. Health , 50 : 41 – 47 .
  • Katsouyanni , K. , Touloumi , G. , Samoli , E. , Gryparis , A. , Le Tertre , A. , Monopolis , Y. , Rossi , G. , Zmirou , D. , Ballester , F. , Boumghar , A. , Anderson , H. R. , Wojtyniak , B. , Paldy , A. , Braunstein , R. , Pekkanen , J. , Schindler , C. and Schwartz , J. 2001 . Confounding and effect modification in the short-term effects of ambient particles on total mortality: Results from 29 European cities within the APHEA2 project . Epidemiol , 12 : 521 – 531 .
  • Chen , H. , Goldberg , M. S. and Villeneuve , P. J. 2008 . A systematic review of the relation between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and chronic diseases . Rev. Environ. Health , 23 : 243 – 297 .
  • Zanobetti , A. , Schwartz , J. , Samoli , E. , Gryparis , A. , Touloumi , G. , Peacock , J. , Anderson , R. H. , Le Tertre , A. , Bobros , J. , Celko , M. , Goren , A. , Forsberg , B. , Michelozzi , P. , Rabczenko , D. , Hoyos , S. P. , Wichmann , H. E. and Katsouyanni , K. 2003 . The temporal pattern of respiratory and heart disease mortality in response to air pollution . Environ. Health Perspect. , 111 : 1188 – 1193 .
  • Harrison , R. M. , Stedman , J. and Derwent , D. 2008 . New directions: Why are PM concentrations in Europe not falling? . Atmosph. Environ. , 42 : 603 – 606 .
  • Buzzard , N. A. , Clark , N. N. and Guffey , S. E. 2009 . Investigation into pedestrian exposure to near-vehicle exhaust emissions . Environ. Health , 8 : 13
  • Liu , L. , Poon , R. , Chen , L. , Frescura , A.-M. , Montuschi , P. , Ciabattoni , G. , Wheeler , A. and Dales , R. 2009 . Acute effects of air pollution on pulmonary function, airway inflammation, and oxidative stress in asthmatic children . Environ. Health Persp. , 117 : 668 – 674 .
  • Sierra-Vargas , M. P. , Guzman-Grenfell , A. M. , Blanco-Jimenez , S. , Sepulveda-Sanchez , J. D. , Bernabe , R. M. , Cardenas-Gonzales , B. , Ceballos , G. and Hicks , J. J. 2009 . Airborne particulate matter PM2.5 from Mexico City affects the generation of reactive oxygen species by blood neutrophils from asthmatics: An in vitro approach . J. Occup. Med. Toxicol. , 4 : 17
  • Buchholz , S. , Krein , A. , Junk , J. , Gutleb , A. C. , Pfister , L. and Hoffmann , L. 2010 . Modelling, measuring and characterizing airborne particles in southwestern Luxembourg Manuscript submitted for publication
  • Berghmans , P. , Bleux , N. , Int Panis , L. , Mishra , V. K. , Torfs , R. and van Poppel , M. 2009 . Exposure assessment of a cyclist to PM10 and ultrafine particles . Sci. Total Environ. , 407 : 1286 – 1298 .
  • Gustafsson , M. , Blomqvist , G. , Gudmundsson , A. , Dahl , A. , Swietlicki , E. , Bohgard , M. , Lindbom , J. and Ljungman , A. 2008 . Properties and toxicological effects of particles from the interaction between tyres, road pavement and winter traction material . Sci. Total Environ. , 393 : 226 – 240 .
  • Jaffe , D. , Hafner , W. , Chand , D. , Westerling , A. and Spracklen , D. 2008 . Interannual variations in PM2.5 due to wildfires in the western United States . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 42 : 2812 – 2818 .
  • Logan , W. P. 1953 . Mortality in the London fog incident, 1952 . Lancet , 1 ( 6755 ) : 336 – 338 .
  • Bell , M. L. and Davis , D. L. 2001 . Reassessment of the lethal fog of 1952: Novel indicators of acute and chronic consequences of acute exposure to air pollution . Environ. Health Perspect. , 109 : 389 – 394 .
  • Harrison , R. M. 2004 . Key pollutants—airborne particles . Sci. Total. Environ. , 334/335 : 3 – 8 .
  • LaRosa , L. E. , Buckley , T. J. and Wallace , L. A. 2002 . Real-time indoor and outdoor measurements of black carbon in an occupied house: An examination of sources . J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. , 52 : 41 – 49 .
  • Hopke , P. K. and Rossner , A. 2006 . Exposure to airborne particulate matter in the ambient, indoor, and occupational environment . Clin. Occup. Environ. Med. , 5 : 747 – 771 .
  • Bernstein , J. A. , Alexis , N. , Bacchus , H. , Bernstein , I. L. , Frits , P. , Horner , E. , Li , N. , Mason , S. , Nel , A. , Oullette , J. , Reijula , K. , Reponen , T. , Seltzer , J. , Smith , A. and Tarlo , S. M. 2008 . The health effects of nonindustrial indoor air pollution . J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. , 121 : 585 – 591 .
  • McCormack , M. C. , Breysee , P. N. , Matsui , E. C. , Hansel , N. N. , Williams , D. , Curtis-Brosnan , J. , Eggleston , P. and Diette , G. B. 2009 . In-home particle concentrations and childhood asthma morbidity . Environ. Health Perspect. , 117 : 294 – 298 .
  • Buseck , P. R. and Adachi , K. 2008 . Nanoparticles in the atmosphere . Elements , 4 : 389 – 394 .
  • Sabin , L. D. , Behrentz , E. , Winer , A. M. , Jeong , S. , Fitz , D. R. , Pankratz , D. V. , Colome , S. D. and Fruin , S. A. 2005 . Characterizing the range of children's air pollutant exposure during school bus commutes . J. Exp. Anal. Environ. Epidem. , 11 : 377 – 387 .
  • Behrentz , E. , Sabin , L. D. , Winer , A. M. , Fitz , D. R. , Pankratz , D. V. , Colome , S. D. and Fruin , S. A. 2005 . Relative importance of school bus related microenvironments to children's pollutants exposure . J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. , 55 : 1418 – 1430 .
  • Phalen , R. F. and Oldham , M. J. 2006 . Aerosol dosimetry considerations . Clin. Occup. Environ. Med. , 5 : 773 – 784 .
  • Junk , J. , Helbig , A. and Krein , A. 2009 . Mortality rates and air pollution levels under different weather conditions: An example from Western Europe . Int. J. Waste Manag., Special issue: Urban Air Pollut. , 4 : 197 – 212 .
  • Miller , K. A. , Siscovick , D. S. , Sheppard , L. , Shepherd , K. , Sullivan , J. H. , Anderson , G. L. and Kaufman , J. D. 2007 . Long-term exposure to air pollution and incidence of cardiovascular events in women . New Engl. J. Med. , 356 : 447 – 458 .
  • Laden , F. , Schwartz , J. , Speizer , F. E. and Dockery , D. W. 2006 . Reduction in fine particulate air pollution and mortality: Extended follow-up of the Harvard Six Cities study . Am J. Resp. Crit. Care Med. , 173 : 667 – 672 .
  • Brunekreef , B. , Beelen , R. , Hoek , G. , Schouten , L. , Bausch-Goldbohm , S. , Fischer , P. , Armstrong , B. , Hughes , E. , Jerret , M. and van den Brandt , P. 2009 . Effects of long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution on respiratory and cardiovascular mortality in the Netherlands: Tthe NLCS-AIR study . Resp. Rep. Health Eff. Inst. , 139 : 5 – 89 .
  • Jacobson , M. Z. 2008 . On the causal link between carbon dioxide and air pollution mortality . Geophys. Res. Lett. , 35 : L03809 doi:10.1029/2007GL031101
  • Ebi , K. L. and McGregor , G. 2008 . Climate change, trophospheric ozone and particulate matter, and health impacts . Environ. Health Perspect. , 116 : 1449 – 1455 .
  • Hogreve , C. , Lynn , B. , Rosenzweig , C. , Goldber , R. , Civerolo , K. and Ku , J.-Y. “ Utilizing CMAQ process analysis to understand the impacts of climate change on ozone and particulate matter, models-3 User's Workshop, 26–28 September 2005 ” . Chapel Hill, , NC, USA Retrieved from http://www.cmascenter.org/conference/2005/abstracts/3_2.pdf
  • Hogreve , C. , Leung , R. , Mickley , L. , Hunt , S. and Winner , D. 2005 . Considering climate change in air quality management . EM (Environmental Manager) , October : 19 – 23 .
  • World Health Organisation . 2002 . The world health report: Reducing risks, promoting healthy life , Geneva, , Switzerland : WHO .
  • World Health Organisation . 2004 . Particulate matter air pollution: How it harms health , Fact sheet Euro/04/05 Berlin, , Germany : WHO .
  • World Health Organisation . 2007 . Health relevance of particulate matter from various sources Report on a WHO Workshop, Bonn, Germany, 26–27 March 2007. EU/07/5067587
  • U.S. EPA and Clean Air Quality Scientific Advisory Committee . 2005 . Review of the national ambient air quality standards for particulate matter: Policy assessment of scientific and technical information , Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards staff paper Washington, DC : U.S. EPA .
  • Donaldson , K. , Brown , D. , Clouter , A. , Duffin , R. , MacNee , W. and Renwick , L. 2002 . The pulmonary toxicology of ultrafine particles . J. Aerosol. Med. , 15 : 213 – 220 .
  • Müller , B. , Seifart , C. and Barth , P. J. 1998 . Effect of air pollutants on the pulmonary surfactant system . Eur. J. Clin. Invest. , 28 : 762 – 777 .
  • Pietropaoli , A. P. , Frampton , M. W. , Hyde , R. W. , Morrow , P. E. , Oberdörster , G. and Cox , C. 2004 . Pulmonary function, diffusing capacity, and inflammation in healthy and asthmatic subjects exposed to ultrafine particles . Inhal. Toxicol. , 16 : 59 – 72 . et al.
  • Nemmar , A. , Hoet , P. H.M. , Vanquickenborne , B. , Dinsdale , D. , Thomeer , M. , Hoylaerts , M. F. , Vanbilloen , H. , Mortelmans , L. and Nemery , B. 2002 . Passage of inhaled particles into the blood circulation in humans . Circul. , 105 : 411 – 414 .
  • Furuyama , A. , Kanno , S. , Kobayashi , T. and Hirano , S. 2009 . Extrapulmonary translocation of intratracheally instilled fine and ultrafine particles via direct and alveolar macrophage-associated routes . Arch. Toxicol. , 83 : 429 – 437 .
  • Elder , A. and Oberdörster , G. 2006 . Translocation and effects of ultrafine particles outside of the lung . Clin. Occup. Environ. Med. , 5 : 785 – 796 .
  • Oberdörster , G. , Sharp , Z. , Atudorei , V. , Elder , A. , Gelein , R. , Kreyling , W. and Cox , C. 2004 . Translocation of inhaled particles to the brain . Inhal. Toxicol. , 16 : 437 – 445 .
  • Rosenthal , F. S. , Carney , J. P. and Olinger , M. L. 2008 . Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest and airborne fine particulate matter: A case-crossover analysis of emergency medical services data in Indianapolis, Indiana . Environ. Health Perspect. , 116 : 631 – 636 .
  • Lewtas , J. 2007 . Air pollution combustion emissions: Characterization of causative agents and mechanisms associated with cancer, reproductive, and cardiovascular effects . Mutat. Res. , 636 : 95 – 133 .
  • Bräuner , E. V. , Forchhammer , L. , Møller , P. , Barregard , L. , Gunnarsen , L. , Ashari , A. , Wåhlin , P. , Glasius , M. , Dragsted , L. O. , Basu , S. , Raaschou-Nielsen , O. and Loft , S. 2008 . Indoor particle affect vascular function in the aged: An air filtration-based intervention study . Am J. Resp. Crit. Care Med. , 177 : 419 – 425 .
  • Ritz , B. and Wilhelm , M. 2008 . Ambient air pollution and adverse birth outcomes: Methodological issues in an emerging field . Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol. , 102 : 182 – 190 .
  • Williams , K. , Edwards , S. , Tassone , E. , Gray , S. , Swamy , G. K. , Gelfand , A. and Miranda , M. L. 2006 . Effect of air pollution (PM2.5 & PM10) on low birthweight in North Carolina . Am. J. Obst. Gyn. , 195 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 213
  • Chen , J. C. and Schwartz , J. 2009 . Neurobehavioural effects of ambient air pollution on cognitive performance in U.S. adults . Neurotoxicol. , 30 : 231 – 239 .
  • Chen , J. C. and Schwartz , J. 2008 . Metabolic syndrome and inflammatory responses to long-term particulate air pollutants . Environ. Health. Perspect. , 116 : 612 – 617 .
  • Grahame , T. J. 2009 . Does improved exposure information for PM2.5 constituents explain differing results among epidemiological studies? . Inhal. Toxicol. , 21 : 1 – 13 .
  • Pope , A. C. , Ezzati , M. and Dockery , D. 2009 . Fine-particulate air pollution and life expectancy in the United States . New Engl. J. Med. , 360 : 376 – 386 .
  • Delfino , R. J. , Sioutas , C. and Malik , S. 2005 . Potential role of ultrafine particles in associations between airborne particle mass and cardiovascular health . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 934 – 946 .
  • Kok de , T. M.C.M. , Driece , H. A.L. , Hogervorst , J. G.F. and Briedé , J. J. 2006 . Toxicological assessment of ambient and traffic related particulate matter: A review of recent studies . Mutat. Res. , 613 : 103 – 122 .
  • Pope , A. C. , Burnett , R. T. , Thurston , G. D. , Thun , M. J. , Calle , E. E. , Krewski , D. and Godleski , J. J. 2004 . Cardiovascular mortality and long-term exposure to particulate air pollution: Epidemiological evidence of general pathophysiological pathways of disease . Circul. , 109 : 71 – 77 .
  • Johnson , R. L. 2009 . Relative effects of air pollution on lungs and heart . Circul. , 109 : 5 – 7 .
  • Pope , A. C. and Douglas , D. W. 2006 . Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: Lines that connect . J. Air Waste Manag. Ass. , 109 : 5 – 7 .
  • Nawrot , T. S. , Torfs , R. , Fierens , F. , De Henauw , S. , Hoet , P. H. and van Kerschaever , G. 2007 . Stronger associations between daily mortality and fine particulate air pollution in summer than in winter: Evidence from a heavily polluted region in Western Europe . J. Epidemiol. Community Health , 61 : 146 – 149 . et al.
  • Vermylen , J. , Nemmar , A. , Nemery , B. and Hoylaerts , M. F. 2005 . Ambient air pollution and acute myocardial infarction . J. Thromb. Haemost. , 3 : 1955 – 1961 .
  • Kreyling , W. G. , Semmler-Behnke , M. and Möller , W. 2006 . Ultrafine particle-lung interactions: Does size matter? . J. Aerosol. Med. , 19 : 74 – 83 .
  • Lewtas , J. 2007 . Air pollution combustion emissions: Characterization of causative agents and mechanisms associated with cancer, reproductive, and cardiovascular effects . Mutat. Res. , 636 : 95 – 133 .
  • Brook , R. D. , Franklin , B. , Cascio , W. , Hong , Y. , Howard , G. , Lipsett , M. , Luepker , R. , Mittleman , M. , Samet , J. , Smith , S. C. and Tager , I. 2004 . Air pollution and cardiovascular disease. A statement for healthcare professionals from the expert panel on population and prevention science of the American Heart Association . Circul. , 109 : 2655 – 2671 .
  • Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants . 2006 . Cardiovascular disease and air pollution Retrieved from http://www.advisorybodies.doh.gov.uk/comeap/statementsreports/CardioDisease.pdf
  • Brunekreef , B. and Holgate , S. T. 2002 . Air pollution and health . Lancet , 360 : 1233 – 1242 .
  • Dockery , D. W. and Stone , P. H. 2007 . Cardiovascular risks from fine particulate air pollution . New Engl. J. Med. , 356 : 511 – 513 .
  • Riediker , M. , Cascio , W. E. , Griggs , T. R. , Herbst , M. C. , Bromberg , P. A. , Neas , L. , Williams , R. W. and Devlin , R. B. 2004 . Particulate matter exposure in cars is associated with cardiovascular effects in healthy young men . Am. J. Resp. Crit. Care Med. , 169 : 934 – 940 .
  • Bigert , C. , Gustavsson , P. , Hallquist , J. , Hogstedt , C. , Lewne , M. , Plato , N. , Reuterwall , C. and Scheele , P. 2003 . Myocardial infarction among professional drivers . Epidemiol , 14 : 333 – 339 .
  • Laden , F. , Neas , L. M. , Dockery , D. W. and Schwartz , J. 2000 . Association of fine particulate matter from different sources with daily mortality in six U.S. cities . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 : 941 – 947 .
  • Franchini , M. and Mannucci , P. M. 2007 . Short-term effects of air pollution on cardiovascular diseases: Outcomes and mechanisms . J. Throm. Haemost. , 5 : 2169 – 2174 .
  • Pope , C. A. 2007 . Mortality effects of longer term exposures to fine particulate air pollution: Review of recent epidemiological evidence . Inhal. Toxicol. , 19 : 33 – 38 .
  • Schwela , D. 2000 . Air pollution and health in urban areas . Rev. Environ. Health , 15 : 13 – 42 .
  • Pope , A. C. , Renlund , D. G. , Kfoury , A. G. , May , H. T. and Horne , B. D. 2008 . Relation of heart failure hospitalization to exposure to fine particulate air pollution . Am. J. Cardiol. , 102 : 1230 – 1234 .
  • Delfino , R. J. , Staimer , N. , Tjoa , T. , Polidori , A. , Arhemi , M. , Gillen , D. L. , Kleinman , M. T. , Vaziri , N. D. , Longhurst , J. , Zaldivar , F. and Sioutas , C. 2008 . Circulating biomarkers of inflammation, antioxidant activity, and platelet activation are associated with primary combustion aerosols in subjects with coronary artery disease . Environ. Health Perspect. , 116 : 898 – 906 .
  • Monteiller , C. , Tran , L. , MacNee , W. , Faux , S. , Jones , A. , Miller , B. and Donaldson , K. 2007 . The pro-inflammatory effects of low-toxicity low-solubility particles, nanoparticles and fine particles, on epithelial cells in vitro: The RLE of surface area . Occup. Environ. Med. , 64 : 609 – 615 .
  • Hext , P. M. , Tomenson , J. A. and Thompson , P. 2005 . Titanium dioxide: Inhalation toxicology and epidemiology . Ann. Occup. Hyg. , 49 : 461 – 472 .
  • Nygaard , U. C. , Samuelson , M. , Aase , A. and Løvik , M. 2004 . The capacity of particles to increase allergic sensitization is predicted by particle number and surface area, not by particle mass . Toxicol. Sci. , 82 : 515 – 524 .
  • Nygaard , U. C. , Alberg , T. , Bleumink , R. , Asse , A. , Dybing , E. , Pieters , R. and Løvik , M. 2005 . Ambient air particles from four European cities increase the primary cell response to allergen in the draining lymph node . Toxicol. , 207 : 241 – 254 .
  • Dybing , E. , Lovdal , T. , Hetland , R. B. , Løvik , M. and Schwarze , P. E. 2004 . Respiratory allergy adjuvant and inflammatory effects of urban ambient particles . Toxicol. , 198 : 307 – 314 .
  • Napierska , D. , Thomassen , L. C. , Rabolli , V. , Lison , D. , Gonzalez , L. , Kirsch-Volders , M. , Martens , J. A. and Hoet , P. H. 2009 . Size-dependent cytotoxicity of monodisperse silica nanoparticles in human endothelial cells . Small , 5 : 846 – 853 .
  • Hetland , R. B. , Refsnes , M. , Myran , T. , Johansen , B. V. , Uthus , N. and Schwarze , P. E. 2000 . Mineral and/or metal content as critical determinants of particle-induced release of IL-6 and IL-8 from A549 cells . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 60 : 47 – 65 .
  • Øvrevik , J. , Myran , T. , Refsnes , M. , Låg , M. , Becher , R. , Hetland , R. B. and Schwarze , P. E. 2005 . Mineral particles of varying composition induce differential chemokine release from epithelial lung cells: Importance of physico-chemical characteristics . Ann. Occup. Hyg. , 49 : 219 – 231 .
  • Diociauti , M. , Balduzzi , M. , De Berardis , B. , Cattani , G. , Stacchini , G. , Ziemacki , G. , Marconi , A. and Paoletti , L. 2001 . The two PM(2.5) (fine) and PM2.5–10) (coarse) fractions: Evidence of different biological activity . Environ. Res. , 86 : 254 – 262 .
  • Wichmann , G. , Frack , U. , Herbarth , O. , Rehwagen , M. , Dietz , A. , Massolo , L. , Ronco , A. and Müller , A. 2009 . Different immunomodulatory effects associated with sub-micrometer particles in ambient air from rural, urban and industrial areas . Toxicol. , 257 : 127 – 136 .
  • Müller , A. , Wichmann , G. , Massolo , L. , Rehwagen , M. , Gröbsch , C. , Loffhagen , N. , Herbarth , O. and Ronco , A. 2006 . Cytotoxicity and oxidative stress caused by chemicals adsorbed on particulate matter . Environ. Toxicol. , 21 : 457 – 463 .
  • Schwarze , P. E. , Øvrevik , J. , Hetland , R. B. , Becher , R. , Cassee , F. R. , Låg , M. , Løvik , M. , Dybing , E. and Refsnes , M. 2007 . Importance of size and composition of particles for effects on cells in vitro . Inhal. Toxicol. , 19 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 17 – 22 .
  • Stone , V. , Johnston , H. and Clift , M. J. 2007 . Air pollution, ultrafine and nanoparticle toxicology: Cellular and molecular interactions . IEEE Trans. Nanobiosci. , 6 : 331 – 340 .
  • Valavanidis , A. , Fiotakis , K. and Vlachogianni , T. 2008 . Airborne particulate matter and human health assessment and importance of size and composition of particles for oxidative damage and carcinogenic mechanism . J. Environ. Sci Health. C. Environ. Carcinog. Ecotoxicol. Rev. , 26 : 339 – 362 .
  • Stoeger , T. , Reinhard , C. , Takenaka , S. , Schroeppel , A. , Karg , E. , Ritter , B. , Heyder , J. and Schulz , H. 2006 . Instillation of six different ultrafine carbon particles indicates a surface area threshold dose for acute lung inflammation in mice . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 328 – 333 .
  • Xia , T. , Kochovich , M. and Nel , A. 2006 . The role of reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress in mediating particulate matter injury . Clin. Occup. Environ. Med. , 5 : 817 – 836 .
  • Donaldson , K. and Stone , V. 2003 . Current hypotheses on the mechanism of toxicity of ultrafine particles . Ann. Ist. Super Sanitá , 39 : 405 – 410 .
  • Stone , V. , Johnston , H. and Clift , M. J. 2007 . Air pollution, ultrafine and nanoparticle toxicology: Cellular and molecular interactions . IEEE Trans Nanobiosci. , 6 : 331 – 340 .
  • Gilmour , P. S. , Ziesenis , A. , Morrison , E. R. , Vickers , M. A. , Drost , E. M. , Ford , I. , Karg , E. , Mossa , C. , Schroeppel , A. , Ferron , G. A. , Heyder , J. , Greaves , M. , MacNee , W. and Donaldson , K. 2004 . Pulmonary and systematic effects of short-term inhalation exposure to ultrafine carbon black particles . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 195 : 35 – 44 .
  • Harrison , R. M. , Shi , J. P. , Xi , S. , Khan , A. , Mark , D. and Kinnersley , R. 2000 . Measurement of number, mass and size distribution of particles in the athmosphere . Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A , 358 : 2567 – 2579 . et al.
  • Samuelsen , M. , Nygaard , U. C. and Løvik , M. 2009 . Particle size determines activation of the innate immune system in the lung . Scand. J. Immunol. , 69 : 421 – 428 .
  • Kocbach , A. , Li , Y. , Yttri , K. E. , Cassee , F. R. , Schwarze , P. E. and Namork , E. 2005 . Physicochemical characterization of combustion particles from vehicle exhaust and residential wood smoke . Part. Fib. Toxicol. , 3 : 1
  • Krein , A. , Udelhoven , T. , Audinot , J.-N. , Hissler , C. , Guignard , C. , Pfister , L. , Migeon , H.-N. and Hoffmann , L. 2008 . Imaging chemical patches on near-surface athmospheric dust particles with NanoSIMS50 to identify material sources . Water Air. Soil Poll. , 8 : 495 – 503 .
  • Kang , S. , Hwang , H. , Park , Y. , Kim , H. and Ro , C. U. 2008 . Chemical compositions of subway particles in Seoul, Korea determined by a quantitative single particle analysis . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 15 : 9051 – 9057 .
  • Møller , P. , Kjærsgaard Folkmann , J. , Forchhammer , L. , Vaclavik Bräuner , E. , Høgh Danielsen , P. , Risom , L. and Loft , S. 2008 . Air pollution, oxidative damage to DNA, and carcinogenesis . Cancer Lett , 266 : 84 – 97 .
  • Tarantini , L. , Bonzini , M. , Apostoli , P. , Pegoraro , V. , Bollati , V. , Marinelly , B. , Cantone , L. , Rizzo , G. , Hou , L. , Schwartz , J. , Bertazzi , P. A. and Baccarelli , A. 2009 . Effects of particulate matter on genomic DNA methylation content and iNOS promoter methylation . Environ. Health Perspect. , 117 : 217 – 222 .
  • Schwarze , P. E. , Øvrevik , J. , Låg , M. , Refsnes , M. , Nafstad , P. , Hetland , R. B. and Dybing , E. 2006 . Particulate matter properties and health effects: Consistency of epidemiological and toxicological studies? . Hum. Exp. Toxicol. , 25 : 559 – 579 .
  • Novák , J. , Jálová , V. , Giesy , J. O. and Hilscherová , K. 2009 . Pollutants in particulate and gaseous fraction of ambient air interfere with multiple signalling pathways in vitro . Environ. Int. , 35 : 43 – 49 .
  • Brown , L. E. , Trought , K. R. , Bailey , C. I. and Clemons , J. H. 2005 . 2,3,7,8-TCDD equivalence and mutagenic activity associated with PM10 from three urban locations in New Zealand . Sci. Total Environ. , 349 : 161 – 174 .
  • Klein , G. P. , Hodge , E. M. , Diamond , M. L. , Yip , A. , Dann , T. and Stem , G. 2006 . Gas-ambient air contaminants exhibit significant dioxin-like and estrogen-like activity in vitro . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 697 – 703 . et al.
  • Matsumoto , H. , Adachi , S. and Suzuki , Y. 2005 . Bisphenol A in ambient air particulates responsible for proliferation of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells and its concentration changes over 6 months . Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 48 : 459 – 466 .
  • Wang , J. X. , Xie , P. , Xu , Y. , Kettrup , A. and Schramm , K. W. 2004 . Differing estrogen activities in the organic phase of air particulate matter collected during sunny and foggy weather in a Chinese city detected by a recombinant yeast bioassay . Atmos. Environ. , 38 : 6157 – 6166 .
  • Cavallari , J. M. , Eisen , E. A. , Fang , S. C. , Schwartz , J. , Hauser , R. , Herrick , R. F. and Christiani , D. C. 2008 . PM2.5 metal exposure and nocturnal heart rate variability: A panel study of boilermarker construction workers . Environ. Health , 7 : 36
  • Riediker , M. , Devlin , R. B. , Griggs , T. R. , Herbst , M. C. , Bromberg , P. A. , Williams , R. W. and Cascio , W. E. 2004 . Cardiovascular effects in patrol officers are associated with fine particulate matter from brake wear and engine emissions . Part. Fib. Toxicol. , 1 : 2
  • Kang , J. Y. 2002 . Cardiovascular toxicity of particulate air pollution . Cardiovasc. Tox. , 2 : 233 – 235 .
  • Riediker , M. 2007 . Cardiovascular effects of fine particulate matter components in highway patrol officers . Inhal. Toxicol. , 19 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 99 – 105 .
  • Aust , A. E. , Ball , J. C. , Hu , A. A. , Lighty , J. S. , Smith , K. R. , Straccia , A. M. , Vernath , J. M. and Young , W. C. 2002 . Particle characteristics responsible for effects on human lung epithelial cells . Res. Rep. Health Eff. Inst. , 110 : 1 – 65 .
  • Wilson , M. R. , Lightbody , J. H. , Donaldson , K. , Sales , J and Stone , V. 2002 . Interactions between ultrafine particles and transition metals in vivo and in vitro . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 184 : 172 – 179 .
  • Jalava , P. I. , Salonen , R. O. , Pennanen , A. S. , Happo , M. S. , Penttinen , P. , Hälinen , A. I. , Sillanpää , M. , Hillamo , R. and Hirvonen , M.-R. 2008 . Effects of solubility of urban air fine and coarse particles on cytotoxic and inflammatory responses in RAW 264.7 macrophage cell line . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 229 : 146 – 160 .
  • Senlin , L. , Zhenkun , Y. , Xiaohui , C. , Minghong , W. , Guoying , S. , Jiamo , F. and Daly , P. 2008 . The relationship between physicochemical characterization and the potential toxicity of fine particulates (PM2.5) in Shanghai atmosphere . Atmos. Environ. , 42 : 7205 – 7214 .
  • de Hartog , J. J. , Lanki , T. , Timonen , K. L. , Hoek , G. , Janssen , N. A. , Ibald-Mulli , A. , Peters , A. , Heinrich , J. , Tarkiainen , T. H. , van Grieken , R. , van Wijnen , J. H. , Brunekreef , B. and Pekkanen , J. 2009 . Associations between PM2.5 and heart variability are modified by particle composition and beta-blocker use in patients with coronary heart disease . Environ. Health Perspect. , 117 : 105 – 111 .
  • Timonen , K. L. , Vanninen , E. , de Hartog , J. J. , Ibald-Mulli , A. , Brunekreef , B. , Gold , D. R. , Heinrich , J. , Hoek , G. , Lanki , T. , Peters , A. , Tarkiainen , T. H. , Tiittanen , P. , Kreyling , W. and Pekkanen , J. 2006 . Effects of ultrafine and fine particulate and gaseous air pollution on cardiac autonomic control in subjects with coronary artery disease: The ULTRA study . J. Exp. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. , 16 : 332 – 341 .
  • Franklin , M. , Koutrakis , P. and Schwartz , P. 2008 . The role of particle composition on the association between PM2.5 and mortality . Epidemiol. , 19 : 680 – 689 .
  • Schulz , H. , Harder , V. , Ibald-Mulli , A. , Khandoga , A. , Koenig , W. , Krombach , F. , Radykewicz , R. , Stampfl , A. , Thorand , B. and Peters , A. 2005 . Cardiovascular effects of fine and ultrafine particles . J. Aerosol. Med. , 18 : 1 – 22 .
  • Utell , M. J. , Frampton , M. W. , Zareba , W. , Devlin , R. B. and Cascio , W. E. 2002 . Cardiovascular effects associated with air pollution: Potential mechanisms and methods of testing . Inhal. Toxicol. , 14 : 1231 – 1247 .
  • Danesh , J. , Kaptoge , S. , Mann , A. G. , Sarwar , N. , Wood , A. , Angleman , S. B. , Wensley , F. , Higgins , J. P. , Lennon , L. , Eiriksdottir , G. , Rumley , A. , Whincup , P. H. , Lowe , G. D. and Gudnason , V. 2008 . Long-term interleukin-6 levels and subsequent risk of coronary heart disease: Two new prospective studies and a systematic review . PloS Med. , 8 : e78
  • Ulrich , M. , Alink , G. M. , Kumarathasan , P. , Vincent , R. , Boere , A. J.F. and Cassee , F. R. 2002 . Health effects and time course of particulate matter on the lung cardiopulmonary system in rats with lung inflammation . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 65 : 1571 – 1595 .
  • Kreyling , W. G. and Scheuch , G. 2000 . “ Clearance of particles deposited in the lungs ” . In Particle-lung interactions , Edited by: Gehr , P. and Heyder , J. 323 – 376 . New York/Basel : Marcel Dekker .
  • Oberdörster , G. , Sharp , Z. , Atudorei , V. , Gelein , R. , Lunts , A. , Kreyling , W. and Cox , C. 2002 . Extrapulmonary translocation of ultrafine carbon particles following whole-body inhalation exposure of rats . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 25 : 1531 – 1543 .
  • Fubini , B. and Hubbard , A. 2003 . Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) generation by silica inflammation and fibrosis . Free Radic. Biol. Med. , 34 : 1507 – 1516 .
  • Prahalad , A. K. , Soukup , J. M. , Inmon , J. , Willis , R. , Ghio , A. J. , Becker , S. and Gallagher , J. E. 1999 . Ambient air particles: Effects on cellular oxidant radical generation in relation to particulate elemental chemistry . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 158 : 81 – 91 .
  • Ohyama , M. , Otake , T. , Adachi , S. , Kobayashi , T. and Morinaga , K. 2007 . A comparison of the production of reactive oxygen species by suspended particulate matter and diesel exhaust particles with macrophages . Inhal. Toxicol. , 19 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 157 – 160 .
  • Valavanidis , A. , Fiotakis , K. , Bakeas , E. and Vlahogianni , T. 2005 . Electron paramagnetic resonance study of the generation of reactive oxygen species catalysed by transition metals and quinoid redox cycling by inhalable ambient particulate matter . Redox. Rep. , 10 : 37 – 51 .
  • Dellinger , B. , Pryor , W. A. , Cuteo , R. , Squadrito , G. L. , Hegde , V. and Deutsch , W. A. 2001 . Role of free radicals in the toxicity of airborne fine particulate matter . Chem. Res. Toxicol. , 14 : 1371 – 1377 .
  • Li , N. , Hao , M. , Phalen , R. F. , Hinds , W. C. and Nel , A. E. 2003 . Particulate air pollutants and asthma. A paradigm for the role of oxidative stress in PM-induced adverse health effects . Clin. Immunol. , 109 : 250 – 263 .
  • Cho , H. Y. , Reddy , S. P. and Kleeberger , S. R. 2006 . Nrf2 defends the lung from oxidative stress . Antioxid. Redox Signal , 8 : 76 – 87 .
  • Li , N. , Xia , T. and Nel , A. E. 2008 . The role of oxidative stress in ambient particulate matter-induced lung diseases and its implications in the toxicity of engineered nanoparticles . Free Radic. Biol. Med. , 44 : 1689 – 1699 .
  • Kobayashi , Y. 2008 . The role of cytokines in neutrophil biology . Front. Biosci. , 13 : 2400 – 2407 .
  • Brown , R. K. , Wyatt , H. , Price , J. F. and Kelly , F. J. 1996 . Pulmonary dysfunction in cystic fibrosis is associated with oxidative stress . Eur. Respir. J. , 9 : 334 – 339 .
  • Goldstein , D. J. , Moazami , N. , Seldomridge , J. A. , Laio , H. , Ashton , R. C. jr. , Naka , Y. , Pinsky , D. J. and Oz , M. C. 1997 . Circulatory resuscitation with left ventricular assist device support reduces interleukins 6 and 8 levels . Ann. Thorac. Surg. , 63 : 971 – 974 .
  • Damas , J. K. , Gullestad , L. , Ueland , T. , Solum , N. O. , Simonsen , S. , Froland , S. S. and Aukrust , P. 2000 . CXC-chemokines, a new group of cytokines in congestive heart failure—possible role of platelets and monocytes . Cardiovasc. Res. , 45 : 428 – 436 .
  • Sharma , R. , Coats , A. J. and Anker , S. D. 2000 . The role of inflammatory mediators in chronic heart failure; cytokines, nitric oxide, and endothelin-1 . Int. J. Cardiol. , 72 : 175 – 186 .
  • Li , N. , Kim , S. , Wang , M. , Froines , J. , Sioutas , C. and Nel , A. 2002 . Use of a stratified oxidative stress model to study the biological effects of ambient concentrated and diesel exhaust particulate matter . Inhal. Toxicol. , 14 : 459 – 486 .
  • Tao , R. , Gonzalez-Flecha , B. and Kobzik , L. 2003 . Reactive oxygen species in pulmonary inflammation by ambient particulates . Free Rad. Biol. Med. , 35 : 327 – 340 .
  • Verones , B. and Oortgiesen , M. 2001 . Neurogenic inflammation and particulate matter (PM) air pollutants . Neurotoxicol. , 22 : 795 – 810 .
  • Heunks , L. M. and Dekhuizen , P. N. 2000 . Respiratory muscle function and free radicals: From cell to COPD . Thorax , 55 : 704 – 716 .
  • Mills , N. L. , Törnqvist , H. , Robinson , S. D. , Gonzalez , M. C. , Söderberg , S. and Sandström , T. 2007 . Air pollution and atherothrombosis . Inhal. Toxicol. , 19 : 81 – 89 .
  • Nemmar , A. , Nemery , B. , Hoet , P. H.M. , Vermylen , J. and Hoylaerts , M. F. 2003 . Pulmonary inflammation and thrombogenicity caused by diesel particles in hamsters . Am. J. Resp. Crit. Care Med. , 168 : 1366 – 1372 .
  • Rudež , G. , Janssen , N. A.H. , Kilinc , E. , Leebeek , F. W.G. , Gerlofs-Nijland , M. E. , Spronk , H. M.H. , ten Cate , H. , Cassee , F. R. and de Maat , M. P.M. 2009 . Effects of ambient air pollution on hemostasis and inflammation . Environ. Health Perspect. , 117 : 995 – 1001 .
  • Libby , P. 2002 . Inflammation in atherosclerosis . Nature , 420 : 868 – 847 .
  • Nemmar , A. , Hoylaerts , M. F. and Nemery , B. 2006 . Effects of particulate air pollution on hemostasis . Clin. Occup. Environ. Med. , 5 : 865 – 881 .
  • Urch , B. , Silverman , F. , Corey , P. , Brook , J. R. , Lukic , K. Z. , Rajagopalan , S. and Brook , R. D. 2005 . Acute blood pressure responses in healthy adults during controlled air pollution exposures . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 1052 – 1055 .
  • Knaapen , A. M. , Borm , P. C. , Albrecht , C. and Schins , R. P. 2004 . Inhaled particles and lung cancer. Part A: Mechanisms . Int. J. Cancer , 109 : 799 – 809 .
  • Prahalad , A. K. , Inmon , J. , Dailey , L. A. , Madden , M. C. , Ghio , A. J. and Gallagher , J. E. 2001 . Air pollution particles mediated oxidative DNA base damage in a cell free system and in human airway epithelial cells in relation to particulate metal content and bioreactivity . Chem. Res. Toxicol. , 14 : 879 – 887 .
  • Prahalad , A. K. , Inmon , J. , Ghio , A. J. and Gallagher , J. E. 2000 . Enhancement of 2’-deoxyguanosine hydroxylation and DMA damage by coal and oil fly ash in relation to particulate metal content and availability . Chem. Res. Toxicol. , 13 : 1011 – 1019 .
  • Risom , L. , Møller , P. and Loft , S. 2005 . Oxidative stress-induced DNA damage by particulate air pollution . Mut. Res. , 592 : 119 – 137 .
  • Sun , Q. , Yue , P. , Ying , Z. , Cardounel , A. J. , Brook , R. D. , Devlin , R. , Hwang , J. S. , Zweier , J. L. , Chen , L. C. and Rajagopalan , S. 2008 . Air pollution exposure potentiates hypertension through reactive oxygen species-mediated activation of Rho/ROCK . Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. , 28 : 1760
  • Jalil , J. , Lavandero , S. , Chiong , M. and Ocaranza , M. P. 2005 . Rho/Rho kinase signal transduction pathway in cardiovascular disease and cardiovascular remodeling . Rev. Esp. Cardiol. , 58 : 951 – 961 .
  • Kwon , S. and George , S. C. 1999 . Synergistic cytokine-induced nitric oxide production in human alveolar epithelial cells . Nitric Oxide , 3 : 348 – 357 .
  • Brook , R. D. , Urch , B. , Dvonch , J. T. , Bard , R. L. , Speck , M. , Keeler , G. , Morishita , M. , Marsik , F. J. , Kamal , A. S. , Kaciroti , N. , Harkema , J. , Corey , P. , Silverman , F. , Gold , D. R. , Wellenius , G. , Mittleman , M. A. , Rajagopalan , S. and Brooky , J. R. 2009 . Insights into the mechanisms and mediators of the effects of air pollution exposure on blood pressure and vascular function in healthy humans . Hypertens. , 54 : 659 – 667 .
  • Peretz , A. , Sullivan , J. H. , Leotta , D. F. , Trenga , C. A. , Sands , F. N. , Allen , J. , Carlsten , C. , Wilkinson , C. W. , Gill , E. A. and Kaufman , J. D. 2008 . Diesel exhaust inhalation elicits acute vasoconstriction in vivo . Environ. Health Perspect. , 116 : 937 – 942 .
  • Thomson , E. , Goegan , P. , Kumarathasan , P. and Vincent , R. 2004 . Air pollutants increase gene expression of the vasoconstrictor endothelin-1 in the lungs . Biochem. Biophys. Acta , 1689 : 75 – 82 .
  • Bouthillier , L. , Vincent , R. , Goegan , P. , Adamson , I. Y. , Bjarnason , S. , Stewart , M. , Guenette , J. , Potvin , M. and Kumarathasan , P. 1998 . Acute effects of inhaled urban particles and ozone: Lung morphology, macrophage activity, and plasma endothelin-1 . Am. J. Pathol. , 153 : 1873 – 1884 .
  • Calderón-Garcidueñas , L. , Vincent , R. , Mora-Tiscareño , A. , Franco-Lira , M. , Henríquez-Roldán , C. , Barragán-Mejía , G. , Garrido-García , L. , Camacho-Reyes , L. , Valencia-Salazar , G. , Paredes , R. , Romero , L. , Osnaya , H. , Villareal-Calderón , R. , Torres-Jardón , R. , Hazucha , M. J. and Reed , W. 2007 . Elevated plasma levels endothelin–1 and pulmonary arterial pressure in children exposed to air pollution . Environ. Health Perspect. , 115 : 1248 – 1253 .
  • Brook , R. D. , Brook , J. R. , Urch , B. , Vincent , R. , Rajagopalan , S. and Silverman , F. 2002 . Inhalation of fine particulate air pollution and ozone causes acute arterial vasoconstriction in healthy adults . Circul. , 105 : 1534 – 1536 .
  • Dzau , V. and Pratt , R. 1986 . “ Renin-angiotensin system: Biology, physiology and pharmacology ” . New York : Raven Press .
  • Bartoli , C. R. , Wellenius , G. A. , Diaz , E. A. , Lawrence , J. , Coull , B. A. , Akiyama , I. , Lee , L. M. , Okabe , K. , Verrier , R. L. and Godleski , J. J. 2009 . Mechanisms of inhaled fine particulate air pollution—induced arterial blood pressure changes . Environ. Health Perspect. , 117 : 361 – 366 .
  • Li , Z. , Carter , J. D. , Dailey , L. A. and Huang , Y.-C. 2005 . Pollutant particles produce vasoconstriction and enhance MAPK signalling via angiotensin type 1 receptor . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 1009 – 1014 .
  • Peters , A. , Dockery , D. , Muller , J. E. and Mittleman , M. A. 2001 . Increased particulate air pollution and the triggering of myocardial infarction . Circul. , 103 : 2810 – 2815 .
  • Peters , A. , von Klot , S. , Heier , M. , Trentinaglia , B. S. , Hörmann , A. and Wichmann , E. 2004 . Exposure to traffic and the onset of myocardial infarction . N. Engl. J. Med. , 387 : 1721 – 1730 .
  • Cárdenas , M. , Vallejo , M. , Romano-Riquer , P. , Ruiz-Velasco , S. , Ferreira-Vidal , A. and Hermosillo , A. G. 2008 . Personal exposure to PM2.5 air pollution and heart rate variability in subjects with positive or negative head-up tilt test . Environ. Res. , 108 : 1 – 6 .
  • Pope , A. C. , Muhlestein , J. B. , May , H. T. , Renlund , D. G. , Anderson , J. L. and Horne , B. D. 2006 . Ischemic heart disease events triggered by short-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution . Circul. , 114 : 2443 – 2448 .
  • Zanobetti , A. and Schwartz , J. 2005 . The effect of particulate air pollution on emergency admissions for myocardial infarction: A multicity case-crossover analysis . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 978 – 982 .
  • Wellenius , G. A. , Schwartz , J. and Mittleman , M. A. 2005 . Air pollution and hospital admissions for ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke in medicare beneficiaries . Stroke , 36 : 2549 – 2553 .
  • Nemmar , A. , Nemery , B. , Hoylaerts , M. F. and Vermylen , J. 2002 . Air pollution and thrombosis: An experimental approach . Pathophysiol. Haemost. Thromb. , 32 : 349 – 350 .
  • Peters , A. , Doring , A. , Wichmann , H.-E. and Koenig , W. 1997 . Increased plasma viscosity during an air pollution episode: A link to mortality . Lancet , 349 : 1582 – 1587 .
  • Baccarelli , A. , Zanobetti , A. , Martinelli , I. , Grillo , P. , Hou , L. , Giacomini , S. , Bonzini , M. , Lanzani , G. , Mannucci , P. M. , Bertazzi , P. A. and Schwartz , J. 2007 . Effects of exposure to air pollution on blood coagulation . J. Thromb. Haemost. , 5 : 252 – 260 .
  • Vermylen , J. and Hoylaerts , M. F. 2007 . The procoagulant effects of air pollution . J. Thromb. Haemost. , 5 : 250 – 251 .
  • Pope , A. C. , Hansen , M. L. , Long , R. W. , Nielsen , K. R. , Eatough , N. L. , Wilson , W. E. and Eatough , D. J. 2004 . Ambient particulate air pollution, heart rate variability, and blood markers of inflammation in a panel of elderly subjects . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 339 – 345 .
  • Rückerl , R. , Ibaldi-Mulli , A. , Koenig , W. , Schneider , A. , Woelke , G. , Cyrys , J. , Heinrich , J. , Marder , V. , Frampton , M. , Wichmann , H. E. and Peters , A. 2006 . Air pollution and markers of inflammation and coagulation in patients with coronary heart disease . Am. J. Resp. Crit. Care Med. , 173 : 432 – 441 .
  • Tamagawa , E. , Bai , N. , Morimoto , K. , Gray , C. , Mui , T. , Yatera , K. , Yhang , X. , Xing , L. , Li , Y. , Laher , I. , Sin , D. D. , Man , S. F. and van Eeden , S. F. 2008 . Particulate matter exposure induces persistent lung inflammation and endothelial dysfunction . Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. , 295 : 79 – 85 .
  • Rückerl , R. , Phipps , R. P. , Schneider , A. , Frampton , M. , Cyrys , J. , Oberdörster , G. , Wichmann , H. E. and Peters , A. 2007 . Ultrafine particles and platelet activation in patients with coronary heart disease—results from a prospective panel study . Part. Fib. Toxicol. , 4 : 1
  • Brook , R. D. , Brook , J. R. and Rajagopalan , S. 2003 . Air pollution: The heart of the problem . Curr. Hypertens. Rep. , 5 : 32 – 39 .
  • Bagate , K. , Meiring , J. J. , Gerlofs-Nijland , M. E. , Cassee , F. R. , Wiegand , H. , Osornio-Vargas , A. and Borm , P. J. 2006 . Ambient particulate matter affects cardiac recovery in a Langendorff ischemia model . Inhal. Toxicol. , 18 : 633 – 643 .
  • Horton , J. W. , Maass , D. , White , J. and Sanders , B. 2000 . Nitric oxid modulation of TNF-alpha-induced cardiac contractile dysfunction is concentration dependent . Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. , 278 : H1955 – H1965 .
  • Engler , R. and Covell , J. W. 1987 . Granulocytes cause reperfusion ventricular dysfunction after 15-minute ischemia in the dog . Circ. Res. , 61 : 20 – 28 .
  • Xia , T. , Kovochich , M. and Nel , A. E. 2007 . Impairment of mitochondrial function by particulate matter (PM) and their toxic components: Implications for PM-induced cardiovascular and lung disease . Front. Biosci. , 12 : 1238 – 1246 .
  • Shubeita , H. E. , McDonough , P. M. , Harris , A. N. , Knowlton , K. U. , Glembotski , C. C. , Brown , J. H. and Chien , K. R. 1990 . Endothelin induction of inositol phospholipid hydrolysis, sarcomere assembly and cardiac gene expression in ventricular myocytes. A paracrine mechanism for myocardial cell hypertrophy . J. Biol. Chem. , 265 : 20555 – 20562 .
  • Sadoshima , J. and Izumo , S. 1993 . Molecular characterization of angiotensin II-induced hypertrophy of cardiac myocytes and hyperplasia of cardiac fibroblasts. Critical role of the AR1 receptor subtype . Circ. Res. , 73 : 413 – 423 .
  • Sonneberg , H. 1987 . On the physiological role of atrial natriuretic factor . Klin. Wochenschr. , 65 ( Suppl. 8 ) : 8 – 13 .
  • Pozzi , R. , De Berardis , B. , Paoletty , L. and Guastadisegni , C. 2005 . Winter urban air particles from Rome (Italy): Effects on the monocytic-macrophagic RAW 264.7 cell line . Environ. Res. , 99 : 344 – 354 .
  • Valavanidis , A. , Fiotakis , K. , Bakeas , E. and Vlachogianni , T. 2005 . Electron paramagnetic resonance study of the generation of reactive oxygen species catalysed by transition metals and quinoid redox cycling by inhalable ambient particulate matter . Redox. Rep. , 10 : 37 – 51 .
  • Shi , T. , Knaapen , A. M. , Begerow , J. , Birmili , W. , Borm , P. J. and Schins , R. P. 2003 . Temporal variation of hydroxyl radical generation and 8-hydroxy-2’-deoxyguanosine formation by coarse and fine particulate matter . Occup. Environ. Med. , 60 : 315 – 321 .
  • Salonen , R. O. , Halinen , A. J. , Pennanen , A. S. , Hirvonen , M. R. , Sillanpaa , M. , Hillamo , R. , Shi , T. , Borm , P. , Sundell , E. , Koskentalo , T. and Aarnio , P. 2004 . Chemical and in vitro toxicological characterization of wintertime and springtime urban-air particles with an aerodynamic diameter lower than 10 microm in Helsinki . Scand. J. Work. Environ. Health , : 80 – 90 .
  • Pan , C. J. , Schmitz , D. A. , Cho , A. K. , Froines , J. and Fukuto , J. M. 2004 . Inherent redox properties of diesel exhaust particles: Catalysis of the generation of reactive oxygen species by biological reductants . Toxicol. Sci. , 81 : 225 – 232 .
  • Becker , S. , Mundandhara , S. , Devlin , R. B. and Madden , M. 2005 . Regulation of cytokine production in human alveolar macrophages and airway epithelial cells in response to ambient air pollution particles: Further mechanistic studies . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 207 : S269 – S275 .
  • Gu , Z. W. , Keane , M. J. , Ong , T.-M. and Wallace , W. E. 2005 . Diesel exhaust particulate matter dispersed in a phospholipid surfactant induces chromosal aberrations and micronuclei but not 6-thioguanine-resistant gene mutation in V79 cells . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 68 : 431 – 444 .
  • Valentin , J. P. , Hoffmann , P. , De Clerck , F. , Hammond , T. G. and Hondeghem , L. 2004 . Review of the predictive value of the Langendorff heart model (Screenit system) in assessing the proarrhythmic potential of drugs . J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. Meth. , 49 : 171 – 181 .
  • Lawrence , C. L. , Pollard , C. E. , Hammond , T. G. and Valentin , J. P. 2005 . Nonclinical proarrhythmia models: Predicting Torsade de Pointes . J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. Meth. , 52 : 46 – 59 .
  • Simkhovich , B. Z. , Marjoram , P. , Kleinman , M. T. and Kloner , R. A. 2007 . Direct and acute cardiotoxicity of ultrafine particles in young adult and old rat hearts . Basic. Res. Cardiol. , 102 : 467 – 475 .
  • Wold , L. E. , Simkhovich , B. Z. , Kleinman , M. T. , Nordlie , M. A. , Dow , J. S. , Sioutas , C. and Kloner , R. A. 2006 . In vivo and in vitro models to test the hypothesis of particle induced effects on cardiac function and arrhythmias . Cardiovasc. Toxicol. , 6 : 69 – 78 .
  • Totlandsdal , A. I. , Skomedal , T. , Låg , M. , Osnes , J.-B. and Refsnes , M. 2008 . Pro-inflammatory potential of ultrafine particles in mono- and co-cultures on primary cardiac cells . Toxicol , 247 : 23 – 32 .
  • Meyer , T. , Sartipy , P. , Blind , F. , Leisgen , C. and Guenther , E. 2007 . New cell models and assays in cardiac safety profiling . Expert Opin. Drug. Metab. Toxicol. , 3 : 507 – 514 .
  • Jones , S. P. and Kennedy , S. W. 2009 . Chicken cardiomyocyte cultures—a new approach for studying effects of halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons in the avian heart . Toxicol. Sci. , 109 : 66 – 74 .
  • Knuckles , T. L. and Dreher , K. L. 2007 . Fine oil combustion particle bioavailable constituents induce molecular profiles of oxidative stress, altered function, and cellular injury in cardiomyocytes . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 70 : 1824 – 1837 .
  • Totlandsdal , A. I. , Refsnes , M. , Skomedal , T. , Osnes , J.-B. , Schwarze , P. E. and Låg , M. 2008 . Particle-induced cytokine responses in cardiac cell cultures—the effect of particles versus soluble mediators released by particle-exposed lung cells . Toxicol. Sci. , 106 : 233 – 241 .
  • Kimes , B. W. and Brandt , B. L. 1976 . Properties of a clonal muscle cell line from rat heart . Exp. Cell. Res. , 98 : 367 – 381 .
  • Hescheler , J. , Meyer , R. , Plant , S. , Krautwurst , D. , Rosenthal , W. and Schultz , G. 1991 . Morphological, biochemical, and electrophysiological characterizations of a clonal cell (H9c2) line from rat heart . Circ. Res. , 69 : 1476 – 1486 .
  • Chaudhary , K. W. , Barrezueta , N. X. , Bauchmann , M. B. , Milici , A. J. , Beckius , G. , Stedman , D. B. , Hambor , J. E. , Blake , W. L. , McNeish , A. J. , Bahinski , A. and Cezar , G. G. 2006 . Embryonic stem cells in predictive cardiotoxicity: Laser capture microscopy enables assay development . Toxicol. Sci. , 90 : 149 – 158 .
  • Kettenhofen , R. and Bohlen , H. 2008 . Preclinical assessment of cardiac toxicity . Drug Discov. Today , 13 : 702 – 707 .
  • Meyer , T. , Sartipy , P. , Blind , F. , Leisgen , C. and Guenther , E. 2007 . New cell models and assays in cardiac safety profiling . Expert. Opin. Drug. Metab. Toxicol. , 3 : 507 – 517 .
  • Furuyama , A. , Hirano , S. , Koike , E. and Kobayashi , T. 2006 . Induction of oxidative stress and inhibition of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 production in endothelial cells following exposure to organic extracts of diesel exhaust particles and urban fine particles . Arch. Toxicol. , 80 : 154 – 162 .
  • Becker , S. , Soukup , J. M. , Gilmour , M. I. and Devlin , R. B. 1996 . Stimulation of human and rat alveolar macrophages by urban air particulates: Effects of oxidant radical generation and cytokine production . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 141 : 637 – 648 .
  • Hetland , R. B. , Cassee , F. R. , Låg , M. , Refsnes , M. , Dybing , E. and Schwarze , P. E. 2005 . Cytokine release from alveolar macrophages exposed to ambient particulate matter: Heterogeneity in relation to size, city and season . Part. Fibre Toxicol. , 2:4
  • Soukup , J. M. and Becker , S. 2001 . Human alveolar macrophage responses to air pollution particulates are associated with insoluble components of coarse material, including particulate endotoxin . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 171 : 20 – 26 .
  • Samet , J. M. , Reed , W. , Ghio , A. J. , Devlin , R. B. , Carter , J. D. , Dailey , L. A. , Bromberg , P. A. and Madden , M. C. 1996 . Induction of prostaglandin H synthase 2 in human airway epithelial cells exposed to residual oil fly ash . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 141 : 159 – 168 .
  • Amakawa , K. , Terashima , T. , Matsizaki , T. , Matsumaru , A. , Sagai , M. and Yamaguchi , K. 2003 . Suppressive effects of diesel exhaust particles on cytokine release from human and murine alveolar macrophages . Exp. Lung. Res. , 29 : 149 – 164 .
  • Jalava , P. I. , Salonen , R. O. , Hälinen , A. I. , Penttinen , P. , Pennanen , A. S. , Sillanpää , M. , Sandell , E. , Hillamo , R. and Hirvonen , M.-R. 2006 . In vitro inflammatory and cytotoxic effects of size-segregated particulate samples collected during long-range transport of wildfire smoke to Helsinki . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 215 : 341 – 353 .
  • Diociaiuti , M. , Balduzzi , M. , De Berardis , B. , Cattani , G. , Stacchini , G. , Ziemacki , G. , Marconi , A. and Paoletti , L. 2001 . The two PM(2.5) (fine) and PM(2.5–10) (coarse) fractions: Evidence of different biological activity . Environ. Res. , 86 : 254 – 262 .
  • Tal , T. L. , Bromberg , P. A. , Kim , Y. and Samet , J. M. 2008 . Epidermal growth factor receptor activation by diesel particles is mediated by tyrosine phosphatase inhibition . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 15 : 382 – 388 .
  • Watterson , T. , Sorensen , J. , Randy , M. and Rofer , C. 2007 . Effects of PM2.5 collected from Cache Valley Utah on genes associated with the inflammatory response in human lung cells . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A. , 70 : 1731 – 1744 .
  • Fujii , T. , Hayashi , S. , Hogg , J. C. , Vincent , R. and van Eeden , S. F. 2001 . Particulate matter induces cytokine expression in human bronchial epithelial cells . Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. , 25 : 265 – 271 .
  • Ning , Y. , Tao , F. , Qin , G. , Imrich , A. , Godlsmith , C.-A. , Yang , Z. and Kobzik , L. 2004 . Particle-epithelial interaction: Effect of priming and bystander neutrophils on interleukin-8 release . Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. , 30 : 744 – 750 .
  • Ramgolam , K. , Chevaillier , S. , Marano , F. , Baeza-Squiban , A. and Martinon , L. 2008 . Proinflammatory effect of fine and ultrafine particulate matter using size-resolved urban aerosols from Paris . Chemosphere , 72 : 1340 – 1346 .
  • Imrich , A. , Ning , Y. Y. , Lawrence , J. , Coull , B. , Gitin , E. , Knutson , M. and Kobzik , L. 2007 . Alveolar macrophage cytokine response to air pollution particles: Oxidant mechanisms . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 218 : 256 – 264 .
  • Rumelhard , M. , Ramgolam , K. , Auger , F. , Dazy , A.-C. , Blanchet , S. , Marano , F. and Baeza-Squiban , A. 2007 . Effects of PM2.5 components in the release of amphiregulin by human airway epithelial cells . Toxicol. Lett. , 2007 : 155 – 164 .
  • Vabulas , R. M. , Ahmad-Nejad , P. , Ghose , S. , Kirschning , C. J. , Issels , R. D. and Wagner , H. 2002 . HSP70 as endogenous stimulus of the Toll/interleukin-1 receptor signal pathway . J. Biol. Chem. , 277 : 15107 – 15112 .
  • Becker , S. , Dailey , L. , Soukup , J. M. , Silbajoris , R. and Devlin , R. B. 2005 . TLR-2 is involved in airway epithelial cell response to air pollution particles . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 203 : 45 – 52 .
  • Imrich , A. , Ning , Y. and Kobzik , L. 2000 . Insoluble components of concentrated ar particulate alveolar macrophage responses in vitro . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 167 : 140 – 150 .
  • Kamdar , O. , Le , W. , Zhang , J. , Ghio , A. J. , Rosen , G. D. and Upadhyay , D. 2008 . Air pollution induces enhanced mitochondrial oxidative stress in cystic fibrosis airway epithelium . FEBS Lett , 582 : 3601 – 3606 .
  • Guo , B. , Zebda , R. , Drake , S. J. and Sayes , C. M. 2009 . Synergistic effect of co-exposure to carbon black Fe2O3 nanoparticles on oxidative stress in cultured lung epithelial cells . Part. Fibre. Toxicol. , 9 : 4
  • Smith , K. R. , Vernath , J. M. , Hu , A. A. , Lighty , J. S. and Aust , A. E. 2000 . Interleukin-8 levels in human lung epithelial cells are increased in response to coal fly ash and vary with the bioavailability of iron, as a function of particle size and source of coal . Chem. Res. Toxicol. , 13 : 118 – 125 .
  • Payne , J. P. , Kemp , S. J. , Dewar , A. , Goldstraw , P. , Kendall , M. , Chen , L. C. and Tetley , T. D. 2004 . Effects of airborne World Trade Center dust on cytokine release by primary human lung cells in vitro . J. Occup. Environ. Med. , 46 : 420 – 427 .
  • Brandenberger , C. , Rothen-Ruthishauser , B. , Blank , F. , Gehr , P. and Muhlfeld , C. 2009 . Particles induce apical plasma membrane enlargement in epithelial lung cell line depending on particle surface area dose . Respir. Res. , 12 10:22
  • Anseth , J. W. , Goffin , A. J. , Fuller , G. G. , Ghio , A. J. , Kao , P. N. and Upadhyay , D. 2005 . Lung surfactant gelation induced by epithelial cells exposed to air pollution or oxidative stress . Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. , 33 : 161 – 168 .
  • Raunio , H. , Hakkola , J. , Hukkanen , J. , Lassila , A. , Päivärinta , K. , Pelkonen , O. , Anttila , S. , Piipari , R. , Boobis , A. and Edwards , R. J. 1999 . Expression of xenobiotic-metabolizing CYPs in human pulmonary tissue . Exp. Toxicol. Pathol. , 51 : 412 – 417 .
  • Hukkanen , J. , Lassila , A. , Päivärinta , K. , Valanne , S. , Sarpo , S. , Hakkola , J. , Pelkonen , O. and Raunio , H. 2000 . Induction and regulation of xenobiotic-metabolizing cytochrome P450s in the human A549 lung adenocarcinoma cell line . Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. , 22 : 360 – 366 .
  • Billet , S. , Abbas , I. , Le Goff , J. , Verdin , A. , André, Lafargue , P. E. , Hachimi , A. , Cazier , F. , Sichel , F. , Shirali , P. and Garçon , G. 2008 . Genotoxic potential of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons-coated onto airborne particulate matter (PM2.5) in human lung epithelial A549 cells . Canc. Lett. , 270 : 144 – 155 .
  • Billet , S. , Garçon , G. , Dagher , Z. , Verdin , A. , Ledoux , F. , Cazier , F. , Courcot , D. , Aboukais , A. and Shirali , P. 2007 . Ambient particulate matter (PM2.5): Physicochemical characterization and metabolic activation of the organice fraction in human lung epithelial cells (A549) . Environ. Res. , 105 : 212 – 223 .
  • Castell , J. V. , Donato , M. T. and Gómez-Lechón , M. J. 2005 . Metabolism and bioactivation of toxicants in the lung. The in vitro cellular approach . Exp. Toxicol. Path. , 57 : 189 – 204 .
  • Abbas , I. , Saint-Georges , F. , Billet , S. , Verdin , A. , Mulliez , P. , Shirali , P. and Garçon , G. 2009 . Air pollution particulate matter (PM2.5)-induced gene expression of volatile organic compounds and/or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-metabolizing enzymes in an in vitro coculture model . Toxicol. , 23 : 37 – 46 . in vitro
  • Saint-Georges , F. , Abbas , I. , Billet , S. , Verdin , A. , Gosset , P. , Mulliez , P. , Shirali , P. and Garçon , G. 2008 . Gene expression induction of volatile organice compound and/or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-metabolizing enzymes in isolated human alveolar macrophages in response to airborne particulate matter (PM2.5) . Toxicol. , 244 : 220 – 230 .
  • Dagher , Z. , Garçon , G. , Billet , S. , Gosset , P. , Ledoux , F. , Courcot , D. , Aboukais , A. and Shirali , P. 2006 . Activation of different pathways of apoptosis by air pollution particulate matter (PM2.5) in human epithelial lung cells (L132) in culture . Toxicol. , 225 : 12 – 24 .
  • Yun , Y.-P. , Lee , J. Y. , Ahn , E. K. , Lee , K. H. , Yoon , Y. K. and Lim , Y. 2009 . Diesel exhaust particles induce apoptosis via p53 and Mdm2 in J774A.1 macrophage cell line . Toxicol. , 23 : 21 – 28 . in vitro
  • Hirota , R. , Akimura , K. and Nakamura , H. 2008 . In vitro toxicity evaluation of diesel exhaust particles on human eosinophilic cell . Toxicol. , 22 : 988 – 994 . in vitro
  • Veranth , J. M. , Cutler , N. S. , Kaser , E. G. , Reilly , C. A. and Yost , G. S. 2008 . Effects of cell type and culture media on interleukin-6 secretion in response to environmental particles . Toxicol. , 22 : 498 – 509 . in vitro
  • Kemp , S. J. , Thorley , A. J. , Gorelik , J. , Seckl , M. J. , O’Hare , M. J. , Arcaro , A. , Korchev , Y. , Goldstraw , P. and Tetley , T. D. 2008 . Immortalization of human alveolar epithelial cells to investigate nanoparticle uptake . Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. , 39 : 591 – 597 .
  • Oberdörster , G. , Oberdörster , E. and Oberdörster , J. 2005 . Nanotoxicology: An emerging discipline evolving from studies of ultrafine particles . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 823 – 839 .
  • Oberdörster , G. , Oberdörster , E. and Oberdörster , J. 2005 . Concepts of nanoparticle dose metric and response metric . Environ. Health Perspect. , 115 : 290
  • Donaldson , K. , Borm , P. J. , Oberdörster , G. , Pinkerton , K. E. , Stone , V. and Tran , C. L. 2008 . Concordance between in vitro and in vivo dosimetry in the proinflammatory effects of low-toxicity, low-solubility particles: The key role of the proximal alveolar region . Inhal. Toxicol. , 20 : 53 – 62 .
  • Donaldson , K. , Borm , P. J.A. , Castanova , V. and Gulumian , M. 2008 . The limits of testing particle-mediated oxidative stress in vitro in predicting diverse pathologies: Relevance for testing of nanoparticles . Partic. Fibre Toxicol. , 6:13
  • Mitschik , S. , Schierl , R. , Nowak , D. and Jörres , R. A. 2008 . Effects of particulate matter on cytokine production in vitro: A comparative analysis of published studies . Inhal. Toxicol. , 20 : 399 – 414 .
  • Lu , S. , Duffin , R. , Poland , C. , Daly , P. , Murphy , F. , Drost , E. , MacNee , W. , Stone , V. and Donaldson , K. 2009 . Efficacy of simple short-term in vitro assays for predicting the potential of metal oxide nanoparticles to cause pulmonary inflammation . Environ. Health Perspect. , 117 : 241 – 247 .
  • Alfaro-Moreno , E. , Nawrot , T. S. , Vanaudenaerde , B. M. , Hoylaerts , M. F. , Vanoirbeek , J. A. , Nemery , B. and Hoet , P. H. 2008 . Co-cultures of multiple cell types mimic pulmonary cell communication in response to urban PM10 . Eur. Respir. J. , 32 : 1184 – 1194 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.